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empirical scientific research / introspection / conscious / systematic approach / structuralism
Origins - Wundt (AO1)
Studying the mind was philosophy, Wundt 'the father of psychology' started controlled ________________________.
Opened the first psychological lab in Leipzig, Germany (1870's) studying internal mental processes.
Used ___________________ (looking inwards/ self-examination), analysing your own _______________ experience to standard stimuli (such as a metronome), reporting present experience such as sensations, emotional reaction, mental images
________________________, same stimulus, surroundings and instructions. The participants were highly trained.
Breaking thoughts about an object down into separate elements was an attempt to uncover the structure of the mind. This approach was called ________________.
stimuli / behaviours / black box / models
Origins - Wundt (AO3)
Wundt's work paved the way for later scientifically controlled research in psychology.
Wundt's work was criticised by later behaviourist learning theorists who thought internal mental processes could not be studied scientifically by introspection, they focused only on observable inputs (__________) and outputs (__________) seeing the mind as a "______________” not open to objective scientific investigation.
The study of internal mental processes was later continued cognitive psychologists who built ___________ of how systems such as memory worked, however they used experimentation, not introspection.
Nisbett + Wilson / implicit attitudes / conscious awareness / self reports
Origins - Introspection: _______________ (1977) (AO3)
Found this problem was particularly acute in the study of ____________________, ie attitudes or stereotypes that are unknown to us. EG a person may be implicitly racist, which influences the way they react to members of a different ethnic group.
Because such attitudes exist outside of _________________, _________ through introspection would not uncover them. This challenges the value of introspective reports in exploring the roots of our behaviour.
Csikszentmihalyi + Hunter / measurable / beepers / challenging task / momentary condition / quality of life
Origins - Introspection: _________________ (2003) (AO3)
Used introspective methods as a way of making ‘happiness’ a ________________ phenomenon.
They gave a group of teenagers _______ that went off during random times throughout the day, requiring them to write down their thoughts and feelings in the moment before the beep. Most of the entries indicated that the teens were unhappy rather than happy, but when their energies were focused on a ________________, they tended to be more upbeat.
Introspection therefore offers researchers a way of understanding more clearly the ________________ that affect happiness, and as such may help them to improve ________________.
black box / stimulus generalisation
Behaviourist Approach (AO1)
Developed in an attempt to make psychology more scientific by using highly controlled experiments, criticised earlier attempts to study internal mental processes, sees the mind as a "__________________."
__________________: conditioned response happens with similar stimuli. E.g. Little Albert was classically conditioned to fear a white rat and became afraid of a dog, a fur coat and a Santa mask.
Operant + classical conditioning
association
Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning (AO1)
Learning by ______________: learning happens when a neutral stimulus (NS) is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) so that eventually the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) producing the response caused by the UCS.
Pavlov (1897) demonstrated this in dogs who would associate the sound of a bell or metronome (NS then CS) with food (UCS), and drool (R) to the CS.
trial & error / food pellet / frequent & deliberate / 30s / positive / negative / punishment / extinction
Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning (AO1)
Learning by ________________: learning from connection between behaviours and consequences.
Skinner (1938) - Demonstrated this in rats who learnt from trial and error that pulling on a leaver would release a __________. The leaver pulling behaviour became more ________________ over time. The rats also learnt to press the leaver to stop the floor of the cage being electrocuted for ______.
Types of reinforcement:
__________ (adding a stimulus to increase a behaviour)
__________ (removing a stimulus to increase a behaviour)
__________ (adding a stimulus to decrease a behaviour)
__________ (stopping reinforcement will result in the behaviour stopping over time)
Watson’s behaviourist manifesto / behav response to environ stimulus / observable SR behav focus / systematic, objective studies
In 1913, what identified the 3 main aspects of behaviourism? What were they?
generalisation / discrimination / extinction / spontaneous recovery / higher order conditioning
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
when CS no longer paired with UCS, CR will eventually cease
In behaviorist classical conditioning, what is extinction?
only takes few UCS & CS pairings for CR to reappear after extinction
In behaviorist classical conditioning, what is spontaneous recovery?
second order conditioning / Pavlov
In behaviourist classical conditioning, what is higher order conditioning also known as? Who suggested this process?
token economies / environ deterministic / hard determinist / manipulating / reductionist
Behaviourist Approach (AO3)
Little Albert (Watson 1920) study showed fear could be a learnt response, suggesting not instinctual. Led to development of behavioural explanation and counter conditioning treatments for phobias.
Behavioural theories have been used in an attempt to control human behaviour (_________________) this can be seen as unethical.
___________________________ - behaviours result from leaning from the environment, not free will.
___________________ - no role for free will in behavioural theories.
Behaviourists use objective scientific experimental methods - systematically ________________ variables, focus on observable behaviour demonstrates cause and effect.
____________________ approach focusing on lower level of explanation, eg S-R links/associations therefore lacks meaning when it comes to complex human behaviours.
Research mainly with animals therefore generalisation to human behaviour could be limited.
Wong / 5 creepy ways video gaims try to get u addicted / skinner box / reinforcement
Behaviourim - ________ (2008) (AO3)
Used Skinnerian principles to explain addiction to video games in his article ‘_________________________’.
His argument is that the video game environment is a form of _______________ providing _______________ that is dependent on certain behaviours.
For instance, shooting zombies in the example above leads to successful completion of a level, a high score, etc.
The use of the lever or joystick in many video games, it is argued, is analogous to the behaviour exhibited by the rat in the Skinner box.
The success and addictive nature of many early video games, such as Pac-Man, is explained by the fact that the central character navigates its way around the screen literally munching on food pellets
Seligman / preparedness / survival needs / evolutionary history
Behaviourism - _____________ (1970) (AO3)
Proposed the concept of _______________ to explain operant conditioning. Animals are prepared to learn associations that are significant in terms of their ________________ (eg associating the smell of meat with the presence of food), yet unprepared to learn associations that are not significant in this respect (eg associating the sound of a bell with food).
This suggests that classical conditioning may be more appropriate in the learning of specific types of association (ie those important to survival), something that is linked to a species’ ________________.
Because different species face different challenges to survive, some relationships between CS and UCS are more difficult (and others easier) to establish.
CPU / software / schema / inferences / cog neuroscience
Cognitive Approach (AO1)
Behaviour is the result of conscious and unconscious information processing (thoughts).
Internal mental processes are a series of stages of mental information processing. Stages are represented by cognitive theories as theoretical models, these are flow charts like those used by computer programmers showing how information flows and is processed in a mental system, such as memory (WMM/MMS) or attention. These models produce theories testable by experiment.
The cognitive approach suggests the brain can be viewed as similar to a computer _______ and the mind as like the ____________ that runs on this. Computers also have inputs like the brain has senses and outputs like behaviour. This is termed the Computer model.
Role of ______________
__________________
Emergence of _____________________
schema / stereotypes, prejudice & bias
Cognitive Approach: _________ (AO1)
Cognitive mental frameworks/blueprints of how people/objects work.
Formed from prior experience, these organise the large amount of new information we experience every moment and make assumptions on how to behave and think, however incorrect schema lead to ______________________.
inference
Cognitive Approach: ________________ (AO1)
Going beyond observed behaviour to make assumptions about the underling structure of mental processes that resulted in that behaviour. Used as internal mental processes cannot be directly observed.
neurobiological
Cognitive Approach: Cognitive Neuroscience (AO1)
The development of new brain scanning techniques such as FMRI have allowed thought processes to be linked to patterns of activity in the brain, providing ___________________ support to pre-existing cognitive models such as the WMM
PET
cog psychs draw concs about mental processes on observed behaviour basis
What is the definition for inference?
machine reductionism / AI / soft determinist / inferences / braver
Cognitive Approach (AO3)
______________________ oversimplifies human behaviour by describing human thinking as processing like a computer. Computers do not have features of human experiences such as emotion, irrationality and consciousness.
Cognitive psychologist's ideas on information processing have been used to develop the field of ________, with applications in self-driving and automation. These will have significant consequences for the economy.
_____________________: thoughts are influenced by previous experience (schemas) and brain structure, however conscious thought can override as an expression of free will.
Using ______________ to assume underlying processes in thinking, is unscientific as internal mental processes cannot be directly tested and inferences by be mistaken or influenced by bias. However used of experimental method is scientific.
Mental processes described by models such as attention and memory are distinct. However there is little explanation as to how these mental events work together in a larger mental system.
Cognitive neuroscience techniques by _________ (1997) provides neuro-biological evidence of the CE in the WMM, located in prefrontal cortex. High activation detected with brain scans when completing CE tasks, increasing with task difficulty
genetics / bio structures / neurochemistry / evolution
Biological Approach (AO1)
Biological: behaviour is a result of physical processes within the body, primarily neurological brain activity but also hormonal factors. These processes are inherited generically and are a result of evolutionary pressure.
G___________
B_________ s______________
N________________
E___________
genotypes / phenotypes
Biological Approach: Genetics (AO1)
Influence of genes on behaviour is demonstrated from twin and family studies, showing the risk of disorders such as schizophrenia, OCD and depression increase significantly the more closely related people are to a sufferer, as they share more genes.
This is explained by ____________________ (GT), the genetic information inherited from parents, that code for distinct observable physical and behavioural characteristics, called __________________ (PT).
The expression of physical and behavioural properties (PT) are dependent on the inheritance of GT's. EG certain genes (GT) code for production of high testosterone leading to psychological characteristics (PT) such as high aggression levels being expressed.
amygdala / orbitofrontal cortex
Biological Approach: Biological Structures (AO1)
Neural areas in the brain are associated with behavioural functions, such as the _______________ (emotional responses), ___________________(future planning) and Broca's area (speech production) the development of these areas of the brain and the connections between them are coded for genetically.
imbalances / endocrine system
Biological Approach: Neurochemistry (AO1)
Neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine can influence brain / synaptic functioning.
__________________ result in changes in behaviour such as aggression levels and psychopathology.
Hormones (adrenaline) released by the ________________________ in response to stressors results in the "fight or flight" behavioural response.
reproductive advantage / dominance, group cooperation & mate-guarding
Biological Approach: Evolution (AO1)
Evolution is the selection of GT's that code for PT's that provide a survival and/or __________________________.
Behaviours with these advantages will become more prevalent in a population, examples in human behaviour are d_____________, g________________ & m________________.
plasticity / knowledge / nomothetic / objectivity / diathesis stress
The Biological Approach (AO3)
Complex interaction between environmental experiences and development of biological structures not fully explained by a purely biological approach shown by work on ________________.
Maguire (2000) used MRI brain scans on taxi drivers who had completed a memory test called the _________________, areas of their hippocampus were significantly larger than controls.
The effectiveness of the drug treatments developed by biological psychologists, as well as biological theories have been demonstrated by highly controlled __________________ research studies using techniques that provide _______________ such as blood tests and FMRI.
Explanations for disorders such as schizophrenia that cannot be fully explained for by genetic inheritance, often take a ______________________ explanation, disorders being the result of the interaction between a pre-existing vulnerability (ie genetic genotype) and environmental stressors (ie personal loss, abuse, drug use).
Biological determinism
Biological reductionism
Buss / 37 / universal similarities / resources / fertility & reproductive value
Biological - ______ (1989) (AO3)
Studied ____ different cultures and found ________________ in human mate preferences.
Women desired mates with ________ (to provide for offspring) whilst men desired young, physically attractive women (an indication of their ________________________).
bio reductionism / parsimony
The Biological Approach: ______________________ (AO3)
Biological psychologists reduce the explanation for complex behaviours and human experience to simple biological elements (neurotransmitters).
While this ignores other valid explanations, this is based on the scientific principle of ___________________, that complex phenomena should be explained in the simplest way possible. And has led to the development of effective drug treatments.
determinism / free will
The Biological Approach: Biological ___________________ (AO3)
Suggests that human behaviour and thought processes are the result of biological processes outside of our conscious control.
This goes against the view that our decisions are driven by _______________.
psychoanalytic therapy / personality structure / defence mechanisms
The Psychodynamic Approach (AO1)
The psychodynamic approach: focused on studying how unconscious psychological processes shape behaviour, these processes are thought to form during early childhood experience. Founded by Sigmund Freud who also based ________________________ on these ideas.
Aspects of the mind.
_________________________: formed of the ID (pleasure principle) present from birth, focused on satisfying its own needs/desires.
_____________________ are unconscious processes that reduce anxiety felt by the Ego by distorting reality.
Psychosexual stages are phases of development that children pass through. Fixation can occur at any stage, resulting adult psychological disorders. Stages are named after where the child derives pleasure.
conscious / preconscious
The Psychodynamic Approach - Aspects of the Mind (AO1)
Unconscious: not open to awareness, containing socially unacceptable thoughts, painful emotions, drives/instincts and memories that are repressed. Includes:
___________________ (awareness)
______________________ (thoughts/memories that can be recalled, but not currently in conscious awareness).
2y / rational thought / 3-5y / guilt
The Psychodynamic Approach - Structure of Personality (AO1)
Formed of the id (pleasure principle) present from birth, focused on satisfying its own needs/desires.
Ego (reality principle) develops from _______________, focused on balancing other two aspects with __________________.
Superego (morality principle) develops from ______________, focused obeying learnt rules of society and uses ___________.
pleasure / reality / morality
What are the ways of describing the principles of the id, ego and superego?
repression / denial / displacement
The Psychodynamic Approach - Defence Mechanisms (AO1)
Unconscious processes that reduce anxiety felt by the ego by distorting reality. Include…
_______________ - making a memory inaccessible to consciousness.
__________ - to accept the reality of a situation.
___________________ - moving emotions from the source to an alternative.
erogenous zone / ego / castration anxiety / repression
The Psychodynamic Approach - Psychosexual Stages of Development (AO1)
Phases of development that children pass through. Fixation can occur at any stage, resulting in adult psychological disorders. Stages are named after the __________________ where the child derives pleasure and are:
Oral (0-18 months)
Focal point of sensation.
Anal (18 months - 3 years)
________ begins forming - realisation of need to conform.
Toilet training.
Phallic (3 - 6 years)
Oedipus complex.
______________ leads to identification with father.
Latent (6-puberty)
_______________ of conflicts and issues of previous stages leads to consequence of forgetting early years.
Genital (puberty-adulthood).
Provides direction towards sexual intercourse.
anal retentivity - extreme need to control environment / anal expulsivity - disorganised, prone to emotional outbursts
In Freud’s psychosexual stages of development, what was suggested can happen if toilet training is handled badly? What is the definition of these?
gender-role identity / children generally engage in activities with same-sex peers
In Freud’s psychosexual stages of development, what is consolidated in the stage of latency? How is this seen?
incestuous urges / redirected to more socially acceptable partner
In Freud’s psychosexual stages of development, what resurfaces in the genital stage? How are these acted upon?
Bowlby’s attachment theory / psychic determinism / scientific exps / unfalsifiable
Psychodynamic Approach (AO3)
Freud's ideas strongly influenced the development of _____________________ which suggests periods of maternal deprivation in childhood can have long lasting negative psychological effects on adults. This is widely accepted and has revolutionised child welfare.
__________________: mental processes and behaviour that appear freely chosen under conscious control are actually caused by powerful unconscious systems set in childhood. This goes against how most people view their decision making.
Freud's theories developed from his own interpretation of case studies, such as little Hans's fear of horses which Freud explained as resulting from a fear of his father (Oedupus complex) this methodology is highly susceptible to bias.
Concepts such as the unconscious mind being inaccessible mean it cannot be tested in ____________________, so can't be shown to exist or not exist (_________________) Popper argues psychodynamic ideas are not scientific.
66 / neurotic disorders / 70 / wo any treatment
Psychodynamic Approach - Eysenck (1952) (AO3)
While the psychodynamic concepts are not open to scientific study, the effectiveness of psychotherapy seems limited.
Metanalysis demonstrated ______% of people with __________________ treated recovered, however ______% recovered ________________, casting doubt on the theory behind psychotherapy.
Eysenck / 66% w neurotic disorders treated recovered, 70% recovered wo any treatment
In 1952, who researched effectiveness of psychotherapy? What did they find?
free will / self / conditions of worth / client-centred therapy / unconditional positive regard
Humanistic Approach (AO1)
Developed in the 1960's in response to other psychological approaches that focused on the negative/pathological aspects of human behaviour, instead humanism focuses on personal growth.
F_______ w_______
Focus on the _________
______________________ - the requirements an individual feels they need to meet in order to be loved. (real or imaginary), can prevent self actualisation.
Humanistic counselling: Rogers’ __________________ attempts to help the client achieve congruence and provides __________________________ (opposite of conditions of worth). The client is the "expert" responsible for solving their own problems.
determined / cause effect
Humanistic Approach - Free Will (AO1)
Humanistic psychologists suggest that while there are laws and constraints on our behaviour, our actions are not ________________ by _________________ relationships (biological or environmental).
We ultimately consciously choose our behaviours freely.
self-concept / ideal / congruence / incongruence
Humanistic Approach - Focus on the Self (AO1)
Rogers suggests each person has a _______________ (how you see yourself) and an __________ self (how you would wish to be).
__________________ is how close the self-concept and ideal self are. If there is a big difference (______________), then self-actualisation can't be achieved.
physiological / safety / love & belonging / esteem / self-actualisation / motivation
Humanistic Approach - Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs & Self-Actualisation (AO1)
Maslow's hierarchy of needs suggests before satisfying the need for self-actualisation the individual must meet more basic needs, then progressing on to higher needs. In order:
___________
___________
___________________
_________________
___________________: the point at which the individual has achieved their full potential.
Humanists think everyone has the capability and ________________ to work towards the goal of self-actualisation.
operationalised / objectively / ideographic / valid / reliable / individualistic Western / deterministic
Humanistic Approach (AO3)
Concepts such as "self-actualisation" are not clearly __________________ so are not measurable, or open to scientific study, however humanists reject the scientific method in the study of human behaviour suggesting it's not possible for humans to study humans ______________.
Takes a holistic view of studying humans, considering all factors when attempting to understand individuals, using ________________ methods such as case studies. (arguably a more ________ approach but less _________).
Could be an example of cultural bias, _______________________ cultures prioritise individual success and achievement. In collectivist cultures group success is more important. Humanistic psychologists may view individuals from collectivist cultures as less able to self-actualise, therefore in some way inferior.
The humanistic theory is positive, suggesting strategies for significant personal development and positive change at any stage of life. A distinction from more ____________________ approaches seeing behaviour as set in childhood or biology.
Hagerty / 88 countries / 34y / ed enrollment
Humanistic Approach - _________ (1999) (AO3)
Looked at the relationship between economic growth and measures of Maslow’s levels in __________________ over a _______ period.
Countries in the early stages of economic development were characterised by lower level needs (eg physiological needs such as access to food and safety needs).
Only in the advanced stages of economic development, self-actualisation becomes important (eg using levels of ________________ as a measure of people’s desire to better themselves).
Maslow’s hierarchy may have relevance on a much larger stage than individual growth.
teens feeling as if having to fulfil parental approval conditions frequently end up not liking themselves / Roger’s incongruence
What did Harter et al (1996) suggest? What concept did this support?
Nevis / China / belongingness / community
Humanistic Approach - Cross-Cultural Revision (AO3)
Many studies have confirmed that Europeans and Americans focus more on personal identity in defining their self-concept, whereas Chinese, Japanese and Koreans define self-concept more in terms of social relationships.
EG ________ (1983) found in China that _______________ needs were seen as more fundamental than physiological needs and that self-actualisation was defined more in terms of contributions to the _______________ than in terms of individual development.
In a later development to his theory, Maslow did acknowledge that, for some people, needs may appear in a different order or may even be absent altogether.
imitation / modelling / identification / mediational processes / Bandura
Social Learning Theory (AO1)
Agrees with behaviourist ideas that behaviour results from learnt experience, disagrees with behaviourist approach of ignoring internal mental processes, suggesting they must be present for learning. Focuses on learning taking place in a social context due to exposure to others behaviour.
I_________
M______________
I_______________
M___________ p__________
__________ (1961)
vicarious reinforcement / vicarious punishment / between SR / attention / retention / motivation / reproduction
Social Learning Theory (AO1)
Imitation: others behaviour is observed, if behaviour is rewarded we are more likely to reproduce the behaviour (_______________________). Less likely to replicate if observes negative consequences (__________________________)
Modelling: Others act as blueprints for our behaviour. Can be real people or symbolic models (from TV/movies).
Identification: models with characteristics we relate to (e.g. age, gender, and ethnicity) are more likely to be imitated.
Mediational processes: cognitive processes __________________ that influence likelihood of behaviour imitation.
___________ (see)
_______________ (remember)
_______________ (want/rewards)
_______________ (can/skill).
72 3-5yos / matched / gender / imitation & identification / prosocial & antisocial
Social Learning Theory - Bandura (1961) (AO1)
________________ children __________ on levels of aggression. Groups watched videos of adults interacting aggressively or non-aggressively/neutrally with a bobo doll.
Findings: Aggression was imitated in group who watched adult's model aggression. Other group were not aggressive. Effect stronger if adult was the same ___________ as the child.
Suggestions: ________________; learning can have ____________________ effects.
live / verbal / symbolic
What are the 3 type of model that Bandura identified?
attention / retention / reproduction / motivation
What were the specific steps that Bandura proposed in the process of modelling that must be followed if learning is to be successful?
personal factor, behav & environ interaction
According to Bandura, what is reciprocal determinism?
control variables / cause-effect / observable
Social Learning Theory (AO3)
Bandura’s research used __________________ and demonstrated behaviour was imitated.
A ___________________ relationship due to imitation in real life examples of aggression is difficult to study.
SLT's inclusion of internal mental processes is improvement on behaviourism in explaining human behaviour, due to personal experience of having internal mental processes, has face validity. (however study IMP with inferences)
Cognitions used in SLT are not ______________________ directly, making SLT less scientific than behaviourists who only studied objectively measurable stimulus response mechanisms.
SLT processes can explain the development of basic learnt behaviours (aggression), but not more abstract concepts like justice.
SLT sees behaviour as environmentally determined (nurture) but some behaviours may be innate (nature) and better explained by biological explanations or a combination of both factors.
same-sex modelling sig increased female observer number who agreed to donate blood / SLT
What did Rushton + Campbell find? Which approach did this align with?
Fox + Bailenson / virtual / similar or dissimilar / visualise
Social Learning Theory - ________________ (2009) (AO3)
Found evidence for identification using computer generated ‘_________’ humans engaging in exercise or merely loitering.
The models looked either _________________ to the individual participants.
Participants who viewed their virtual model exercising engaged in more exercise in the 24 hours following the experiment than participants who viewed their virtual model merely loitering or a dissimilar model exercising.
Concluded that greater identification with a model leads to more learning because it is easier to _____________ the self in the place of the model, so the observer feels as if he or she is having the same experience.
Seigel + McCormick / associate / similarly inclined / fun / 2 way process
Social Learning Theory - ________________ (2006) (AO3)
Suggested that young people who hold deviant values and attitudes are likely to ____________ with ________________ peers, because they are more ____ to be with.
The reinforcement of ‘deviant’ behaviour is a ______________, not necessarily the result of SLT itself.
causal / soft determinism / consciousness / psychic determinism / decision making
Comparison of Approaches - Free Will & Determinism
Behaviourists: behaviour is environmentally determined, stimulus-response (___________ relationship)
SLT: ___________________ - learning and mediational processes determine behaviour, however role for choice.
Cognitive: soft determinism, thoughts are affected by previous experience (schemas), but __________________ can override.
Biological: behaviour is biologically determined due to the interaction of neurotransmitters, genes and brain structure.
Psychodynamic: __________________ - behaviour is caused by unconscious mental processes (i.e. defence mechanisms, ID)
Humanist: humans express free will in their conscious __________________.
pre-existing neurotransmitters / complex interactions
Comparison of Approaches - Nature/ Nurture
Behaviourists: Nurture, no role for instincts/bio as born as "blank slates" shaped by environment
SLT: Nurture, however also shaped by observation of others experiences.
Cognitive: Both, interaction of brain structure and learnt experiences influencing internal mental systems.
Biological: Nature, behaviour a result of interaction of _________________________, gene and brain structure effects.
Psychodynamic: Both, innate drives and the role of childhood experiences in shaping behaviour.
Humanist: Experiences (nurture) most important, but ___________________ with biological aspects.
experimental methods / general mental models / generalise / subjective
Comparison of Approaches - Ideographic/ Nomothetic
Behaviourists: Nomothetic, large (animal) experiments providing general laws for human behaviour.
SLT: Nomothetic, use of __________________ in determining general laws (Bandura).
Cognitive: Mainly nomothetic with the use of _____________________. However some case studies
Biological: Nomothetic, large biological studies used to give general (medical/physiological) based laws.
Psychodynamic: Ideographic use of case study, however attempt to ______________ findings (nomothetic).
Humanist: Ideographic - no attempt to make general laws; instead studies are ______________ to individual experience.
environmentally / machine reductionism / holistic
Comparison of Approaches - Reductionism & Holism
Behaviourists: __________________ reductionist; ignores mental processes and socio-cultural explanations
SLT: less environmentally reductionist as includes mental factors, however still ignores factors that influence behaviour (i.e. biological)
Cognitive: ______________________; the mind is viewed as just a series of processes, similar to software.
Biological: biologically reductionist, ignores learnt behaviours/ sociocultural.
Psychodynamic: reductionist as behaviour due to drives, however includes aspects of thought process and learning.
Humanist: fully __________, only way to understand human behaviour is to consider all aspects/ levels of humanity
vicariously / schema / evolutionary pressure / adult emotional disorders / need hierarchy
Comparison of Approaches - Childhood Development
Behaviourists: Development based on environmentally conditioned behaviours learnt via association, reinforcement and punishment.
SLT: Behaviours can be learnt socially during development (_____________).
Cognitive: Development by acquiring ________ about how to interpret the world.
Biological: Development strongly influenced by genetic factors, inherited due to __________________.
Psychodynamic: Childhood experience/psychosexual stages fundamental in development of __________________.
Humanist: Healthy development requires unconditional positive regard and satisfying _______________.
unscientific / mediational processes / predictable systems / complex neuronal interactions / free will
Comparison of Approaches - Internal Mental Processes
Behaviourists: Ignores the role of conscious, thought of as ______________.
SLT: Internal mental process (__________________) are important in the generation of behaviour in humans.
Cognitive: Thoughts follow ___________________ that can be displayed as models (i.e. WMM)
Biological: Thoughts are due to ____________________; can be understood using cognitive neuroscience.
Psychodynamic: Large role for unconscious mental processes dominated by the Id/Superego & defence mechanisms
Humanist: Conscious mind is in control of actions and has __________.
reward mechanisms / token economies / maladaptive thought process / unconditional positive regard
Comparison of Approaches - Disorders & Treatments
Behaviourists: Use techniques such as flooding for phobias learnt via conditioning; part of the development of CBT.
SLT: Use ___________________ such as ___________________ in institutions alongside vicarious reinforcement.
Cognitive: Disorders are due to _________________ (Ellis ABC); CBT used to correct.
Biological: Due to imbalances of neurotransmitters, genes or brain structure; treatment with drug interventions.
Psychodynamic: Due to childhood development; psychotherapy as treatment, depends on process of introspection.
Humanist: Focus is on the healthy human, not pathology; _____________________ in client centred therapy
nervous / neurons / electrochemical / endocrine / glands / hormones
Biological Systems (AO1)
_________________ - body wide system of ___________ that collects information from the world, processes this info and then takes action by directing body organs and muscles via the transmission of ___________ messages.
_________________ - collection of _______ around the body that regulate bodily functions, growth, and psychological factors. It acts by releasing _________ into the blood.
central / brain / spinal cord / peripheral / afferent / efferent
Nervous System (AO1)
__________ - involves complex processing; includes the ________ for all conscious and most unconscious processing and the __________ which receives and transmits information & some reflex processing.
_________ - body wide network of messenger neurons; sensory (________) neurons take info to the CNS, and motor (___________) neurones take info away from the CNS
autonomic / glands / involuntary / somatic / skeletal muscles / voluntary
Nervous System - PNS (AO1)
________ nervous system - controls actions of internal ________. This is an ____________ system (not under conscious control)
_______ nervous system - controls _______________. It is a __________ system (under conscious control)
cerebrum / cerebellum / diencephalon / thalamus / relay station / hypothalamus / brain stem
Central Nervous System - Brain (AO1)
__________ - largest part, further divided into four different lobes, each of which has a different primary function; split down the middle into two halves called cerebral hemispheres.
__________ - sits beneath the back of the cerebrum; involved in controlling a person’s motor skills and balance, coordinating the muscles to allow precise movements.
__________ - lies beneath the cerebrum and on top of the brainstem.
__________ - acts as a __________ for nerve impulses coming from the senses, routing them to the appropriate part of the brain where they can be processed.
__________ - has a number of important functions, including the regulation of body temperature, hunger and thirst. It also acts as the link between the endocrine system and the nervous system, controlling the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.
__________ - responsible for regulating the automatic functions that are essential for life inc breathing, heartbeat and swallowing; motor and sensory neurons travel through this region, allowing impulses to pass between the brain and the spinal cord.
sympathetic / noradrenaline / parasympathetic / acetylcholine
Peripheral Nervous System - Autonomic (AO1)
_________________ - increases bodily activities. Responsible for the release of ______________, activated in fight/flight response- increase in heart/sweat/breathing rate, dilates pupils
_________________ - decreases bodily activities. Responsible for the release of ____________, activates in rest & digest- decrease in heart/ sweat/ breathing rates, constricts pupils
12 cranial nerve pairs / 31 spinal nerve pairs
Peripheral Nervous System - Somatic (AO1)
___________________ - emerge directly from the underside of the brain.
___________________ - emerge from the spinal cord.
Sensory neurons relay messages to the CNS; motor neurons relay information from the CNS to other areas of the body.
Also involved in reflex actions without the involvement of the CNS, which allows the reflex to occur very quickly.
pituitary / hypothalamus / pineal / thyroid / thymus / pancreas / adrenal / ovaries / testicles
Name the Glands (Letter Order)
ACTH / CRH / melatonin / thyroxine / thymosin / insulin / adrenaline / oestrogen / testosterone
Name the Hormones Produced by the Glands (Letter Order)
anterior / ACTH / LH & FSH / posterior / oxytocin
Endocrine System - Pituitary Gland (AO1)
_________ - releases ______ (stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol) as well as _________ (stimulate the ovaries to produce oestrogen and progesterone, stimulate the testes to produce testosterone and sperm).
_________ - releases _______ (stimulates contraction of the uterus during childbirth, important for mother-infant bonding).
hypothalamus / CRH / pineal / melatonin / thymus / thymosin
Endocrine System (AO1)
__________ - releases _________ which links the nervous system to the endocrine system.
__________ - releases _________ which modulates sleep pattern, keeping the body to a day/night rhythm.
__________ - releases _________ which stimulates the development of T cells in the immune system.
thyroid gland / thyroxine / pancreas / insulin / adrenal glands / adrenaline / ovaries / oestrogen / testes / testosterone
Endocrine System (AO1)
___________ - releases _________ which modulates metabolism.
_________ - releases _________ which regulates sugar levels.
___________ - releases _________ which regulates the effects of the fight or flight response.
__________ - releases _________ which develops secondary sexual characteristics in females.
__________ - releases _________ which leads to development of secondary sexual characteristics in males.
action potential / vesicles / synaptic cleft / dendrite potential / transport proteins
Synaptic Transmission (AO1)
The __________________ travels down the axon of the presynaptic neurone.
This forces ___________ containing neurotransmitters to merge with the cell membrane.
Neurotransmitters released into the _______________.
Receptors on the postsynaptic neurone's __________________ detects the presence of the neurotransmitters, changing the chemistry within the postsynaptic neurone.
If the charge inside the post synaptic neurone passes a threshold, a new action potential forms and the message is passed on.
The neurotransmitters detach from the receptors and return to the presynaptic cell via __________________, this process is called reuptake.
summation / inhibitary / excitatory / action potential
Synaptic Transmission - ____________ (AO1)
Combined effect of all __________ and ___________ influences, resulting in a new _______________ forming or not.
unidirectional information / neurotransmitters / receptors
Synaptic Transmission - ________________________ (AO1)
Can only be passed between the pre and postsynaptic neurones in one direction.
This is due to the structure of the synapse such as the location of _________________ (pre) and ___________ (post).
stressor / HPA axis / ACTH / cortisol / sympathetic / adrenaline
The Fight or Flight Response (AO1)
A ___________ is first detected by hypothalamus.
The ___________ in the endocrine system is activated, and the pituitary gland releases the hormone _________.
This hormone is detected by the adrenal cortex, releasing __________.
The hypothalamus also activates the _____________ branch of the ANS, and the adrenal medulla is triggered via the sympathetic adrenomedullary pathway, releasing _______________.
hypothalamus / endocrine / pituitary gland / adrenal cortex / hypothalamus / ANS / adrenal medulla / sympathetic adrenomedullary
The Fight or Flight Response (AO1)
A stressor is first detected by ____________.
The HPA axis in the __________ system is activated, and the ______________ releases the hormone ACTH.
This hormone is detected by the ______________, releasing cortisol.
The _______________ also activates the sympathetic branch of the ______, and the _____________ is triggered via the _____________________ pathway, releasing adrenaline.
CRH / ACTH / cortisol / adrenaline
Which hormones are released in the fight or flight response?
homeostasis / maladaptive / acute stress / chronic stress
The Fight or Flight Response (AO1)
Aan evolutionary survival mechanism in response to a threat. It primes the body and mind for extreme action, such as fighting for our life or escaping a threat. The body returns to ________________ after the threat has passed.
The fight or flight response is not designed for the modern world; it is "_____________" in most situations; it is frequently triggered by stimuli that cannot be run away from or fought (e.g exams).
In the short term, this results in _______________, a response to immediate pressures, exciting in small amounts and giving you focus and energy but exhausting if maintained.
Long-term frequent triggering of the fight or flight response results in ________________, which can result in stress-related illness affecting the immune and circulatory systems.
adrenaline / psychological / physical / increased / decreased
The Fight or Flight Response - Role of ____________ (AO1)
___________ effects include increased…
anxiety
attention
alertness
The _________ effects include….
__________ blood flow to the brain and skeletal muscles (quick thinking/ reactions)
___________ blood flow to the skin and the digestive and immune systems.
dilated pupils (improved vision)
faster breathing rate (increased oxygen).
Von Dawans / greater coop & friendly behav / 9/11 / protective
Fight or Flight Response - _______________ (2012) (AO3)
Found that acute stress can actually lead to __________________, in both men and women.
This could explain the human connection that happens during times of crises such as the ______ terrorist attacks in New York.
One reason why stress may lead to this is because human beings are fundamentally social animals and it is the __________ nature of human social relationships that has allowed our species to thrive.
Challenge the classic view that, under stress, men respond only with ‘fight or flight’, whereas women are more prone to ‘tend and befriend’.
Lee + Harley / SRY gene / Y chromosome
Fight or Flight Response - _____________ (2012) (AO3)
The ___________, found exclusively on the male _______________, directs male development, promoting aggression and resulting in the fight-or-flight response to stress.
May prime males to respond to stress in this way by the release of stress hormones such as adrenaline and through increased blood flow to organs involved in the fight-or-flight response.
In contrast, the absence of this gene in females may prevent this response to stress, leading instead to ‘tend and befriend’ behaviours.
Motor cortex / Somatosensory cortex / Broca’s area / Wernicke’s area / Auditory cortex / Visual cortex
Name the Areas of the Brain (Letter Order)
localisation / holistically / contralateral / hemispheric lateralisation
Localisation of Function in the Brain & Hemispheric Lateralisation (AO1)
_____________ of function: Functions such as movement, speech/language and memory are performed in distinct regions of the brain. The opposite view is the brain acts __________ to perform functions.
____________: Each side of the brain (right/left) controls the opposite side of the body. Including both motor and sensory pathways and vision of the contralateral visual field.
___________________: Each hemisphere of the brain (right/left) is specialised to perform different functions. (language centres are in the left hemisphere, visuospatial tasks are best performed by the right) Motor, somatosensory, visual and auditory cortices are on both sides of the brain. Broca and Wernicke's area are only in the left hemisphere.
motor / somatosensory / visual / auditory
Which brain regions are on both sides of the brain?
motor movements / posterior frontal lobe / precentral gyrus / somatosensory cortex / central sulcus / paralysis
Localisation of Function - Motor Cortex (AO1)
Voluntary _____________ across the body. This is contralateral.
Location - _____________, along the _____________; separated from the ____________ by ____________.
Damage - injuring results in the loss of muscle function or after severe trauma, ________ on the opposite side of the body.
sense impressions / anterior parietal lobe / postcentral gyrus / neglect syndrome
Localisation of Function - Somatosensory Cortex (AO1)
Contralaterally receives _______________ from around the body.
Location - ___________, along ____________; separated from the motor cortex by central sulcus
Damage - loss of sensation in opposite side to damage, ignoring areas of the body (_______________).
speech production / posterior left frontal lobe / motor aphasia / Fedorenko / demanding cog tasks
Localisation of Function - Broca’s Area (AO1)
Responsible for _______________.
Location - ______________.
Damage - ______________ (difficulty producing fluent speech).
____________ et al. (2012) - 2 regions of Broca’s area discovered with varying functions:
Selectively involved in language.
Responding to many ________________ (such as performing maths problems).
speech comprehension / posterior left temporal lobe / arcutate fasciculus / sensory aphasia / neologisms
Localisation of Function - Wernicke’s Area (AO1)
Responsible for __________________.
Location - _______________; linked to Broca’s area by _____________ neural loop.
Damage - ________________ (difficulty understanding speech) and production of ___________ (nonsense words produced as part of speech content).
occipital lobe / thalamus / relay
Localisation of Function - Visual Cortex (AO1)
Contralateral visual processing.
Location - ______________.
Some action potentials from retina travel to areas of the brain involved in the coordination of circadian rhythms but the majority terminate in the ____________, which acts as a _______ station, passing this information on to the visual cortex.
aphasia / amnesia / unscientific / MRI / motor & somatosensory
Localisation of Function (AO3)
Clinical case study research demonstrates loss of certain functions if damage is caused to particular areas of the brain e.g. Broca and Wernicke's case studies (__________) and Clive Wearing (____________). This suggests these functions (language/memory recollection) are localised and located in the areas damaged.
The use of case studies are seen as ____________, especially in brain research with damage often covering multiple regions, as seen when modern MRI scans were made of Tan’s brain.
Modern brain scanning techniques like ______ support older research on language centres, showing activation in the regions previously associated when healthy participants perform language tasks
__________________ functions are highly localised, however systems like language are more distributed and some functions like consciousness appear not to be localised at all.
This suggests the correct approach in arguing for the localised or holistic nature of the brain is dependant on the function.
Also due to the high connectivity of the brain no one area is truly independent.
Harasty / women / Broca’s & Wernicke’s
Localisation of Function - _______________ et al (1997) (AO3)
Found ____________ have proportionally larger _________________________ areas.
Suggests gender / individual differences not accounted for.
Dronkers / MRI / Broca aphasia / temporary
Localisation of Function - _______________ et al (2007) (AO3)
Used ______ scans to reexamine preserved brains of patients (Tan & Lelong) with ________________ to identify extent of lesions in more detail.
Found damage to other areas.
Although lesions to Broca’s area alone can cause ____________ speech disruption, they do not usually result in severe disruption of spoken language.
Suggested a network of regions is involved in language & cognition rather than 1 specific area.
Dougherty / 44 / OCD / cingulotomy / 30% / 14%
Localisation of Function - _______________ (2002) (AO3)
Reported on _____ people with _____ who had undergone a ______________ (isolating cingulate gyrus).
At post-surgical follow-up after 32 weeks, about _____ had met the criteria for successful response to the surgery and _____ for partial response.
The success of these procedures suggests that behaviours associated with serious mental disorders may be localised.
Note 
Flashcard (25)