Unit One- Cognition

Achievement test

a norm-referenced standardized test intended to measure an individual’s current level of skill or knowledge in a given subject

Tests how well you did on learning a topic

• AP exams

• tests knowledge not potential

Algorithm

a step by step method that guarantees a solution

• programming

• ex. trying all possible combinations to open a lock

Amygdala

Two Lima bean sized neutral clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion

• emotion

• memory and learning

Anchoring Effect

a cognitive bias that describes the common human tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the “anchor”) when making decisions

• deals

• sales

Anterograde Amnesia

A disturbance in memory marked by inability to learn new information

• new memories

• not remembering a new password

Aphasia

impairment of language

• brain injurys

• amnesia

Aptitude test

any assessment instrument designed to measure potential for acquiring knowledge or skill

• SAT’s

• How well you could do

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space time and frequency and of well learned information such as word meaning

• definitions

• time

Availability Heuristic

a common strategy for making judgments about likelihood of occurrence in which the individual bases such judgments on the salience of the information held in their memory about the particular type of event

• statistics

• cars or planes more dangerous

Basal Ganglia

deep brain structures involved in motor movement

• procedural memory

• riding a bike

Belief Perseverance

the tendency to maintain a belief even after the information that originally gave rise to it has been refuted or otherwise shown to be inaccurate.

Believing information that has been proven false

• I still think that… even though they said thats not true

• believing old wives tales

Broca’s Area

helps control the muscle movement involved with speech in left frontal love

• broccoli

• tongue movements

Central Executive

integrates the information form the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad and can incorporate long-term memory, is “in charge” of monitoring what information deserves our attention and what strategies to use to process information.

• driver swerving- most likely drunk

Cerebellum

plays key role in forming and storing implicit memories

• blinking

• reflexes

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically

• pocket items

• organization bins

Cohort

a group of individuals who share a similar characteristic or experience

• same age

• all went to ET

Confirmation Bias

the tendency to gather evidence that confirms preexisting expectations, typically by emphasizing or pursuing supporting evidence while dismissing or failing to seek contradictory evidence.

• looking for what you think is the correct answer

Constructive Memory

remembering conceived as involving the use of general knowledge stored in one’s memory to construct a more complete and detailed account of an event or experience by changing or filling in various features of the memory

• different experiences

• witnesses

Construct Validity

the degree to which a test or instrument is capable of measuring a concept, trait, or other theoretical entity

• is it able to measure what it needs to measure

• reliable

Context- Dependent Memory

the context in which information was learned enhances the recall of that information

• context

• structure

Convergent Thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

• considering price when deciding where to eat

• factors when making decision

Cross-Sectional Study

observational studies that analyze data from a population at a single point in time

• health

• features

Crystallized Intelligence

a theory proposing that there are two main kinds of intellectual abilities nested under general intelligence

• build up

• old

Deep Processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words, tends to yield the best retention

• rewording

• creating examples

Divergent Thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions

• how many ways to use fork

• creating caption for photo

Echoic Memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is somewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

• “are you even listening” and remembering

• mocking

Effortful Processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

• math class

• taking notes from powerpoint

Elaborative Rehearsal

memory rehearsal that is useful in transferring information into long-term memory

• thinking about meaning

• definitions

Emotional Intelligence

the ability to manage both your own emotions and understand the emotions of people around you

• empathy

• in touch with your emotions

Encoding Failure

a breakdown in the process of getting information in to the cognitive system

• not processing

• not paying attention

Encoding Specificity Principle

memory retrieval is improved when the encoding context is the same as the retrieval context.

• stays the same

Episodic Memory

Memories of a specific event

• remembering when you got into ET

• remembering your interaction with your friend

Executive Functioning Skills

a set of skills that underlie the capacity to plan ahead and meet goals, display self-control, follow multiple-step directions even when interrupted, and stay focused despite distractions

• TAM

• ex. working memory

Explicit/Declarative Memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”

• phone numbers

• birthdays

Factor Analysis

a statistical technique that reduces a set of variables by extracting all their commonalities into a smaller number of factors

• organizing

• hierarchies

Fixation

being unable to look at a situation from any other perspective

• only from your pov

• selfish

Flashbulb Memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant memory or event

• trauma

• 9/11

Fluid Intelligence

the ability to to think abstractly, reason quickly and problem solve independent of any previously acquired knowledge

• better with younger people

• gets worse with aging

Flynn Effect

determined the average IQ of humans steadily increases over time

• 1930’s IQ < 2020’s IQ

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

• “the highest score was a 92%”

• “Only one person got a 92%”

Functional Fixedness

cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in the way it is traditionally used

• not unique

• ex. only using a scrunchie as a hair tie and not a bracelet

Gambler’s Fallacy

the belief that, if an event has occurred less frequently than expected, it is more likely to happen again in the future

• gamballing

• trying to predict the outcome

General (g) Intelligence

refers to the idea that a single underlying factor, often referred to as general intelligence, can account for the positive correlations among cognitive abilities

• TAM

• traits

Heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes

How likely something is inherited genetically

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error prone than algorithms

• stuck in traffic- impulsively taking other route

• moving to France without knowing french

Hierarchies

Systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific

• concepts

• pyramids

Hippocampus

a neutral center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

• storage

• memory

Iconic Memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photogenic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

• seeing a car pass and remembering what it looks like for a brief moment

• pictures

Imagination Effect

occurs when learners imagining a procedure or concept perform better on a subsequent test than learners studying rather than imagining

• visualizing

• right brained

Implicit/Nondeclarative Memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

• typing

• singing a song

Insight

a sudden realization of a problems solution; contrasts with strategy based solutions

• remembering where you put your keys after looking

• realization

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

a number used to express the relative intelligence of a person

• achievement test

• smart

Intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

• going with your gut

Justification Effort

a person's tendency to attribute the value of an outcome they put effort into achieving as greater than the objective value of the outcome

• buying a house above value due to its location

• more effort=more value

Long-Term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

• your address

• dogs name

Long-Term Potentation

an increase in cells firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neutral basis for learning and memory

• practicing multiplication a new way and forgetting the old way

• long term memory

Longitudinal Study

researchers repeatedly examine the same individuals to detect any changes that might occur over a period of time

• long time

• graphs

Maintenance Rehearsal

the repetition of information in its original, unaltered form

• repeating phone number until dialed

• helps short term memory

Memory Consolidation

the process by which a temporary, labile memory is transformed into a more stable, long-lasting form

• short term to long term

• studying does this

Mental Set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

• wifi isn’t working- disconnect and reconnect

• it worked last time

Method of Loci

a mnemonic device, a trick to aid in memory storage and retrieval

• memorizing words and associating with part of body

• mnemonic

Misinformation Effect

incorporating misleading information into ones memory of an event

• hearing something about a fight and remembering that

• wrong information

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational device

• ROY G BIV

• phone number chunks

Mood Congruent Memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current good or bad mood

• when ET loses, remembering all the times we’ve lost

• being sad and thinking of other sad things

Morphemes

the smallest unit of meaningful sound

• ed

• a and but

Motivated Reasoning

cognitive and social response in which individuals, consciously or sub-consciously, allow emotion-loaded motivational biases to affect how new information is perceived

• if you think of yourself as an ethical person, but then cheat on a test, that would create cognitive dissonance that you might then try to reason your way out of

• excuses

Normal Curve

scores are symmetrically distributed around the mean, and the mean,mode,median are all located on the same point on the curve with scores decreasing as the curve extends from the mean

• bell curve

• upside down cursive v

Overgeneralization of Grammar

applying a regular grammatical rule in an irregular situation

• finded

• deers

Parallel Processing

Multiple tracks of brain processes occuring at the same time. (NOT MULTITASKING)

• roads

• simultaneous

Phonemes

the smallest unit of sound in language

• a yell

• quick

Phonological Loop

Specialized to briefly store speech-based Information about the sounds of language, contains an acoustic code (sounds we heard) that decays in a few seconds and rehearsal that allows us to repeat words

remembering words and sounds for a short period of time

• copying sounds

• ears

Planning Fallacy

describes our tendency to underestimate the amount of time it will take to complete a task, as well as the costs and risks associated with that task—even if it contradicts our experiences

• procrastinating

• waiting to do notes

Predictive Validity

the degree to which test scores accurately predict scores on a criterion measure

• how well admissions tests predict college GPA

• estimate

Prefrontal Cortex

thought of as the “personality center” and is the cortical region that makes us uniquely human

• personality

• makes who we are

Primacy Effect

our tendency to recall best the first items in a list

• first

• new

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

• thinking of salt when someone says pepper

• thinking of jelly when someone says peanut butter

Proactive Interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

• not being able to remember new phone number

• not being able to remember new password

Procedural Memory

a type of long-term memory involved in the performance of different actions and skills

• how to ride a bike

• gross motor skills

Prospective Memory

remembering to carry out an action at an appropriate future moment

• type of long term memory

• future plans

Prototype

A mental image or best example of a category.

What you picture when you think of something

• A bird= a blue jay or cardinal, not a penguin or flamingo

• basic idea

Recall

retrieving information that is not currently conscious awareness but learned at an earlier time

remembering past information

• fill in the blank questions

• essays

Recency Effect

Our tendency to recall best the last items in a list

• last

• most recent

Recognition

identifying items previously learned

• multiple choice questions

• recognizing

Reconsolidation

the process that enables the update of a previously consolidated memory trace after its reactivation, through re-exposure to unconditioned stimuli, conditioned stimuli and/or context

Reductionism

the belief that complex phenomena can be explained by examining simpler, foundational elements or causes

• memory model

• steps

Reliability

the consistency of the findings or results of a psychology research study

• getting the same score on an exam twice

• stays the same

Representative Heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent or match particular prototypes

• wearing a suit and has a briefcase- must be a lawyer

• sterotypes

Retrieval Failure

a type of forgetting that occurs when information that has been previously encoded and stored in long-term memory cannot be accessed or retrieved when needed

• not being able to answer fill in the blank

• essays

Retroactive Interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

• remembering how to use iphone but not old android

• forgetting old password

Retrograde Amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from ones past

• forgetting childhood

• forgetting friends names

Risk/Loss Aversion

a phenomenon where a real or potential loss is perceived by individuals as psychologically or emotionally more severe than an equivalent gain

• loss worse than gain

• sadness worse than happiness

Self-Reference Effect

a tendency for people to encode information differently depending on whether they are implicated in the information

• When asked to remember words relating to themselves, subjects had greater recall than those receiving other instructions

• self centered

Semantic Memory

the memory system responsible for the long-term storage of general knowledge about the world, including knowledge about words and their meaning, facts, and concepts

• memory

• word definitions

Sensory Memory

immediate, brief recording, of sensory information in the memory system

• smell

• what you’re seeing

Serial Position Effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

• bananas, strawberries, jam, eggs

• remembering bananas and eggs

Shallow Processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

• memorization

• rereading

Short-Term Memory

a static temporary storage to potentially move to long term memory

• garage

• deciding

Source Amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienved, heard about, read about, or imagined.

• “IDK where I heard that from”

• not remembering where you heard information

Spacing Effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

• studying every day the week before a test

• being productive

Split-Half Reliability

a method of estimating reliability by dividing a test into two halves and measuring the correlation between the scores of each half

• seeing if some questions are harder

• reliablility