terms unit 3&4 ap euro

Conquistador

A Spanish conqueror of the Americas during the 16th century who sought wealth, land, and power for Spain.

Caravel

A small, fast, and highly maneuverable sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the 15th century, used for exploration.

Ptolemy's Geography

An ancient Greek text that compiled maps and geographical knowledge, reintroduced to Europe during the Renaissance and influencing exploration.

Treaty of Tordesillas

A 1494 agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian west of the Cape Verde Islands.

Inca Empire

A vast South American civilization located in the Andes, conquered by Spanish forces under Francisco Pizarro in the 1530s.

Mexica Empire

Also known as the Aztec Empire, a powerful Mesoamerican empire centered in Tenochtitlán, conquered by Hernán Cortés in 1521.

Columbian exchange

The global transfer of plants, animals, people, diseases, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World after 1492.

Viceroyalties

Administrative divisions of Spanish America ruled by viceroys who governed on behalf of the Spanish crown.

Encomienda system

A Spanish labor system granting colonists the right to demand tribute and forced labor from Indigenous people in exchange for protection and Christian instruction.

Fronde

A series of civil wars in France (1648-1653) against royal authority, led by nobles and the parlements during Louis XIV's early reign.

Mercantilism

An economic theory that a nation's strength depends on exporting more than it imports and accumulating wealth, especially gold and silver.

Peace of Utrecht

A series of treaties (1713-1715) ending the War of the Spanish Succession and marking the rise of the British Empire as a major power.

Junkers

The landowning nobility of Prussia, who held political and military power under the monarchy.

Boyars

The noble class in Russia before Peter the Great, who held large estates and political influence.

Cossacks

Independent warrior groups in the Russian and Ukrainian steppes, often serving as frontier guards or mercenaries.

Janissary corps

Elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops and bodyguards, originally composed of Christian boys taken through the devshirme system.

Millet system

The Ottoman system allowing religious communities (like Christians and Jews) to govern themselves under their own laws in exchange for loyalty to the Sultan.

Constitutionalism

A political system where government power is limited by law and balanced by a constitution guaranteeing individual rights.

Republicanism

A form of government in which power rests with the people and their elected representatives, without a monarch.

Stadholder

The executive officer of each province in the Dutch Republic, often held by the House of Orange.

Natural philosophy

The study of nature and the physical universe before the development of modern science; the precursor to natural science.

Copernican hypothesis

The theory proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus that the Sun, not the Earth, is at the center of the universe.

Experimental method

A scientific approach that uses controlled observation and experimentation to test hypotheses.

Law of inertia

Newton's principle that an object will remain at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force.

Law of universal gravitation

Newton's law stating that every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance.

Empiricism

The theory that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience and observation rather than pure reasoning.

Cartesian dualism

René Descartes' idea that reality consists of two distinct substances: the mind (spiritual) and the body (material).

Rationalism

The belief that reason and logic are the primary sources of knowledge and truth.

Philosophes

The intellectuals of the Enlightenment who promoted reason, progress, and reform in society, politics, and religion.

Reading revolution

A cultural shift in 18th-century Europe where reading became widespread, individual, and focused on diverse subjects.

Salon

A social gathering, often hosted by women, where writers, philosophers, and artists discussed ideas during the Enlightenment.

Rococo

An artistic style of the 18th century characterized by ornate decoration, pastel colors, and playful themes.

Public sphere

An intellectual space in society where people came together to discuss and debate ideas, especially about government and culture.

Enlightened absolutism

A system in which absolute monarchs adopted Enlightenment ideas such as rational reform and tolerance while maintaining their power.

Cameralism

A German economic theory similar to mercantilism, emphasizing state control of the economy to strengthen the nation.

Haskalah

The Jewish Enlightenment movement of the 18th and 19th centuries, promoting education, integration, and modernization among European Jews.