socialism and society knowledge flashcards

Core to socialism’s fundamental ideas is belief in equality and togetherness. Therefore for socialists, society is existential in the sense that it is fundamental to understanding human nature; who we become is inseparable from the social environment that shapes us. As Anthony Crosland argued …

our outlook, opportunities and even personalities depend on the society into which we are born. Traditional societies, socialists claim, limit individual potential, but because human nature is malleable, improving society can also elevate the prospects and character of individuals.

Socialists place significant importance on social class in determining an individual's opportunities and life prospects. Disparities in life expectancy between affluent and impoverished regions, according to socialists …

are not solely due to luck or personal choices but are a result of societal structures and inequality. This raises the key question: how should society be improved?

(i) Collectivism:

Socialists believe society functions best when it embraces collectivism—the idea that individual actions gain both moral and practical value when aligned with the efforts of others. People achieve more when united, and a good society should …

strengthen co-operation while ensuring that personal interests remain subordinate to the collective good.

(ii) The Virtues of Cooperation:

If people are naturally sociable, cooperation is the natural form of social organisation. It works on society as a moral and galvanizing force and guarantees equality of benefits for the cooperations; it is the antithesis of the ethos of competition and individualism which vindicates capitalism. Early socialism developed in conjunction with cooperative movements for the production and distribution of goods. Robert Owen, who set up a producers’ cooperative in London in 1832, saw cooperation as the moral basis of social life, as well as the only truly successful mode of production. Industrialisation and the division of labour were …

irreversible: the task was to find a form of voluntary cooperation which differed from the enforced dehumanising cooperation in factories. Cooperation is both an ideal and a policy. Experimental producers’ cooperatives are often set up within capitalist societies and third world countries and operate on the basis of equal revenue or profit sharing. Whether this can be enlarged beyond local groups is the socialist question. it would lose its voluntary and ethical quality. New methods of involving workers in capitalist enterprises were devised and advocated by social-democratic parties eg. John Lewis. 

(iii) Freedom as Fulfilment:

The consequence of the socialist view that people are formed by society is a redefinition of freedom compatible with this deterministic perspective and with the premise of human creativity. Socialist freedom is the freedom to unfold and develop one’s potential, especially through unalienated work. Freedom is separated from its liberal synonym, choice: …

if someone has great maths talent, all necessary for her freedom is that a maths career should be open to her, rather than inappropriate choices. The superfluity of consumer products which capitalism offers is also largely irrelevant to the socialist analysis of freedom - they offer the illusion of choice, yet they can’t enhance the development of the individual who is too poor to benefit from the consumer society.

(i) Internationalism:

The international dimension in socialism is justified, for humanists, as all humanity is one race. National boundaries cannot circumscribe universal political truths, nor limit universal human rights. In this respect, socialists are liberal. The utopian socialists, writing during and after the protracted Napoleonic wars, were instinctively internationalist. Fourier planned a world confederation of communities: Saint-Simon wanted a federation of industrial countries - for which both have been accused of totalitarian inclinations. Marx and Engels promoted the International on the basis of their analysis of …

of the economic interdependence of capitalist countries and the common interests of workers everywhere. Following the world wars a choice was to be made between patriotism and internationalism. French and German socialist parties were forced to vote on war credits or be denounced as traitors. Today, the 3rd world dimension presents further issues: how can solidarity subsist between the proletariat of industrial countries and that of developing countries.

The importance of class (i):

Improving society requires recognising the central role of social class. Contrary to conservative beliefs that view society as an 'organic whole,' socialists adopt a conflict theory of society, where social class is considered the most profound and politically significant social division. Socialist class politics manifest in two ways. Initially …

social class acts as an analytical tool, with socialists asserting that individuals tend to act in unison with those who share similar economic positions or interests. Here, social classes, not individuals, are the primary agents of historical change, as exemplified by the Marxist concept of historical transformation resulting from class conflict. The second aspect of socialist class politics is centered on the working class, emphasizing political struggle and liberation. Socialism is often seen as advocating for the interests of the working class, positioning them as the driving force behind socialist ideals.

The importance of class (ii):

However, socialists do not consider social class as a permanent societal fixture; envisioning socialist societies as either devoid of classes or marked by significantly reduced class disparities. By freeing themselves from capitalist exploitation, the working class simultaneously sheds its class identity, evolving into …

fully realized individuals. Despite this, socialists remain divided on the nature and significance of social class. Many socialists highlight the divide between manual and non-manual workers, often mirroring the divide between the well-paid and poorly paid, or between those who control their working lives and those whose work is controlled by others.

The importance of class (iii):

Marx and Engels framed this as bourgeoisie vs. proletariat, though modern socialists use terms like middle vs. working class, white- vs. blue-collar, or haves vs. have-nots. While the working class was once associated mainly with manual labour in heavy industry, socialists now extend it to low-paid, insecure white-collar workers as well. Although other ideologies acknowledge class, socialism is …

distinctive in arguing that class structures and conflicts shape society itself. Because individuals often inherit the limits of their class position, socialists emphasise the resulting inequalities of opportunity and the broader social inequalities they generate. Correcting these injustices lies at the heart of the socialist project.

Socialism & Egalitarianism (i)

Conservatism, Liberalism and Socialism have different approaches to equality. To Conservatives, Equality is abstract and unachievable.  It is not organic.  The New Right believe in equality of opportunity to a degree, but also the incentivising benefits of social inequality. For Liberals, ‘We are born equal’ in terms of moral worth.  They believe in formal equality (equal status for all members of society regardless of social background), and equality of opportunity.  Classical Liberals back strict meritocracy though (although they were rather dodgy on saying the vote should be denied to anyone who wasn’t a significant property owner), whilst Modern Liberals support the idea that …

genuine equal opportunities require relative social equality. Socialists however stress equality: this does not mean that socialists believe that all people are born identical, possessing the same capabilities and skills. An egalitarian society would not be one in which all students gained the same mark in their examinations. Rather, socialist egalitarianism is underpinned by the belief that the most significant forms of human inequality are a result of unequal treatment by society, instead of unequal endowment by nature. Justice therefore demands that people are treated equally by society in terms of their rewards and material circumstances. This implies a commitment to social equality, or equality of outcome, the liberal idea of equality of opportunity usually being dismissed by socialists on the grounds that it legitimises inequality by perpetuating the myth of innate inequality. 

Socialism & Egalitarianism (ii)

Liberalism’s belief in foundational equality and equality of opportunity, socialists argue, is hollow in a society marked by vast inequalities of wealth and power. True opportunity requires greater equality of outcome—narrower gaps between rich and poor and a more even distribution of resources and influence. Social justice must accompany legal equality. Socialists maintain that …

 someone born into a lower-class background, regardless of talent, faces fewer opportunities than someone born into privilege. Thus the socialist aim, expressed by Crosland, is to “narrow the gap between society’s weaker and stronger classes,” or as Beatrice Webb put it, “to make the humble mightier and the mighty humbler.” How this is achieved leads naturally into socialism’s economic vision.

Socialists believe in this type of equality because …

1. It ensures social cohesion and fraternity

2. It establishes justice or equity

3. It enlarges freedom in a positive sense

However, there is disagreement over how far equality should be achieved: For Communists/Marxists, belief is in absolute social equality, however for …

for Social Democrats and other Evolutionary Socialists, belief is in relative social equality. 

Absolute social equality

Although socialists agree about the virtue of social equality, they disagree on the extent to which it can be brought about. Marxists believe in absolute social equality, brought about by the abolition of private property and …

collectivisation of productive wealth. The most famous example of such radical egalitarianism is the Chinese cultural revolution. 

Relative social equality

Social democrats believe in relative social equality, achieved by the redistribution of wealth through the welfare state and a system of progressive taxation.  Social democrats' desire to tame capitalism …

rather than abolish it reflects acceptance of material incentives and egalitarianism refocused on eradicating poverty.