AP Psych Semester 1 Review

sme

Positive correlation

A relationship between two variables where they both increase or decrease together.

Negative correlation

A relationship between two variables where one variable increases while the other decreases.

Illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists.

Operational definition

A statement of the procedures or ways in which a researcher is going to measure behaviors or qualities.

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment and is affected by the independent variable.

Confounding variable

An outside influence that changes the effect of a dependent and independent variable.

Target population

The entire group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying.

Representative sample

A subset of a population that accurately reflects the members of the entire population.

Opportunity sampling

A non-probability sampling method where participants are selected based on their convenient accessibility.

Self-selected sampling

A sampling method where individuals volunteer to participate in the study.

Random sampling

A sampling method that ensures every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Stratified sampling

A method of sampling that involves dividing the population into sub-groups and then taking a sample from each.

Informed consent

A process of obtaining voluntary agreement from participants after providing necessary information about the study.

Informed assent

An agreement given by individuals who are not legally able to give informed consent, often minors.

Deception

A practice in research where information is withheld from participants or they are misled about the purpose of the study.

Debriefing

The process of explaining the true nature and purpose of a study to participants after it has concluded.

Withdrawal

The right of participants to leave a study at any time without penalty.

Confidentiality

The ethical principle of keeping participant information private.

Protection from harm

An ethical guideline that requires researchers to minimize risks and protect participants from harm.

Lab

A controlled environment where scientific research is conducted.

Survey

A research method that involves collecting data from a group of respondents by asking questions.

Questionnaire

A set of written questions used to gather information from participants.

Naturalistic observation

A research method where observers watch subjects in their natural environment without interference.

Case study

An in-depth study of a single individual or group to explore complex issues.

Meta-analysis

A statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies.

Bar graph

A chart that presents categorical data with rectangular bars.

Pie graph

A circular chart divided into slices to illustrate numerical proportions.

Line graph

A type of chart that displays information as a series of data points connected by straight lines.

Scatterplot

A graphical representation of two variables for a set of data.

Mean

The average value of a set of numbers, calculated by dividing the sum by the total count.

Median

The middle value in a list of numbers arranged in ascending or descending order.

Mode

The value that appears most frequently in a data set.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Defense mechanisms

Psychological strategies used to cope with reality and maintain self-image.

Repression

The unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and memories from awareness.

Rationalization

A defense mechanism involving a logical explanation for an act or decision to avoid emotional discomfort.

Displacement

A defense mechanism where emotions are redirected from their original source to a safer target.

Regression

A defense mechanism where an individual reverts to behaviors characteristic of an earlier stage of development.

Projection

A defense mechanism that involves attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone else.

Reaction formation

A defense mechanism that involves expressing the opposite of one's true feelings.

Denial

A defense mechanism characterized by refusal to accept reality or fact.

Sublimation

A defense mechanism where socially unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable actions.

Hans Eysneck five factor model

A model of personality which includes five key traits: extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness.

Projective tests

Psychological tests that use ambiguous stimuli to elicit responses reflecting an individual's personality.

TAT

Thematic Apperception Test, a projective psychological test used to reveal people's underlying motives and concerns.

Rorschach

A projective test consisting of inkblots to assess personality structure and identify emotional functioning.

Nature and nurture

The debate over the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental factors to human development.

Continuity vs stages

The debate of whether development is a gradual, continuous process or a series of distinct stages.

Stability vs change

The debate on whether personality traits remain stable throughout life or change over time.

Maturation

The process of development that occurs as a result of genetic programming.

Critical period

A specific time in development during which particular skills or behaviors are most easily learned.

Fine motor coordination

The ability to control small movements of the hands and fingers.

Gross motor coordination

The ability to control larger movements of the arms, legs, and body as a whole.

Cognitive development

The progression of thinking and reasoning skills as a child matures.

Piaget's stages

The four stages of cognitive development proposed by Jean Piaget: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete operational, Formal operational.

Schema

A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

The process of integrating new experiences into existing schemas.

Leveling

The process of omitting or simplifying details in the recall of an event.

Sharpening

The process of emphasizing or exaggerating certain aspects of an event when recalling.

Scaffolding

A teaching method that involves providing support to enhance student understanding.

Adolescent egocentrism

The heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, making them believe that they are the center of attention.

Imaginary audience

The belief that others are as focused on you as you are on yourself, common during adolescence.

Personal fable

The belief held by adolescents that they are unique and invulnerable.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that ease the cognitive load of making decisions.

Representative heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on past experiences to make judgments.

Availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily they come to mind.

Affect heuristic

A mental shortcut in which current emotions influence decision-making.

Retrievability heuristic

The tendency to remember information that is more accessible in memory.

Obstacles to decision-making

Factors that hinder or complicate the decision-making process.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs.

Fixation

The inability to see a problem from a new perspective.

Mental set

A tendency to approach situations in a certain way because that method worked in the past.

Functional fixedness

A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.

Overconfidence

When someone's subjective confidence in their judgments is greater than the objective accuracy.

Belief perseverance

The tendency to cling to one's initial beliefs even when confronted with contradictory evidence.

Gambler's fallacy

The belief that past events can influence the probabilities of future independent events.

Sunk cost fallacy

The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made.

Insight

The sudden realization of the solution to a problem.

Intuition

The ability to understand something instinctively, without the need for conscious reasoning.

Framing

The way information is presented, which can affect decision-making and judgments.

Nudge

A subtle policy shift that encourages people to make decisions that are in their broad self-interest.

Encoding memory

The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Explicit memory

The conscious, intentional recollection of factual information.

Implicit memory

The unconscious retention of information, influencing thoughts or behavior.

Effortful processing

The encoding of information that requires conscious effort and attention.

Automatic processing

The unconscious encoding of incidental information.

Chunking

The process of grouping information to make it easier to remember.

Pneumonics

Techniques used to improve memory and recall by associating new information with familiar concepts.

Spacing effect

The phenomenon where information is better retained when study sessions are spaced out over time rather than crammed.

Serial position effect

The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list best.

Primacy effect

The tendency to better remember items that were presented first in a list.

Recency effect

The tendency to better remember items that were presented last in a list.

Testing effect

The improved memory that results from retrieving information during testing.

Retrieving

The process of accessing and bringing into consciousness information stored in memory.

Shallow processing

A method of encoding information based on its superficial characteristics.

Deep processing

A method of encoding information that involves a more meaningful analysis.

Episodic memory

A type of explicit memory that pertains to personal experiences and events.

Semantic memory

A type of explicit memory that entails facts and general knowledge.

Flashbulb memory

A vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event.