Intro to Human Geography Midterm #2

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89 Terms

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culture

beliefs, values, practices, behaviors, and technologies shared by society and passed down from generation to generation

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cultural trait

material and immaterial cultural attributes; ex. language, arts, land-use patterns, personal behavior, food and clothing

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artifacts

visible objects and technologies that a culture creates; ex. house, buildings, clothing, tools, toys

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sociofacts

structures and organizations that influence social behavior; ex. families, governments, educational systems, religious organizations

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mentifacts

enduring elements of culture that reflect its shared ideas, values, knowledge, and beliefs; ex. language, religious beliefs

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cultural norms

shared standards and patterns that guide the behavior of a group of people

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popular culture

widespread behaviors, beliefs, and practices of ordinary people in society at a given point in time; spread more quickly through media

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traditional culture

long-established behaviors, beliefs, and practices passed down by generations

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ethnocentrism

tendency of ethnic groups to evaluate other groups according to preconceived ideas originating from their own culture; one’s cultural group is superior vs. clear discrimination

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cultural relativism

evaluation of a culture solely by its unique standards; opposite or ethnocentrism; critics are concerned with accepting practices that are violations of human rights

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cultural landscape

natural landscape that has been modified by humans, reflecting their cultural beliefs and values

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identity

how humans make sense of themselves and how they wish to be viewed by others

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sequent occupance

idea that successive societies leave behind their cultural imprint, shaping the cultural landscape

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ethnicity

state of belonging to a group of people who share common cultural characteristics

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ethnic neighborhoods

cultural landscapes within communities of people outside their areas of origin; ex. chinatowns, koreatowns, japan towns, little Italy, little Saigons

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traditional architecture

established building styles of different cultures, religions, and places; influenced by the environment and based on localized needs and construction materials 

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postmodern architecture

values diversity in design and public spaces

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religion

a system of spiritual beliefs that helps form cultural perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, and values; contributes to cultural values and identities; architecture styles impacted

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language

system of communication

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toponyms

place names, may highlight specific geographic or historical features; ex. street signs

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race

combination of physical attributes in a population

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racism

method of maintaining social, economic, and political order

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gendered spaces

spaces designed and incorporated into the landscape to accommodate gender roles; can be supportive or restrictive; attempts to work and live outside of one’s gendered space may be difficult; ex. womens/mens bathrooms

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gender identity

one’s innermost concept of self as male, female, a blend of both, or neither

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safe spaces

spaces of acceptance for people sometimes marginalized by society; ex. Chelsea, West Village, NY

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gentrification

renovations and improvements conforming to middle-class preferences;

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third place

communal social space where they can develop a sense of self and form relationships with others

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sense of place

when people fill a location with meaning, connecting it with memories and feelings

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placemaking

a process in which a community collaborates to create a placed where they can live, work, play, and learn

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centripetal force

force that unites a group of people

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centrifugal force

a force that divides a group of people

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diffusion

the process by which a cultural trait spreads from one placed to another over time

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cultural hearth

the geographical location that is the source of a cultural trait

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relocation diffusion

the spread of cultural traits through the movement of people

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expansion diffusion

when an aspect of culture spreads outward from where it originated

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contagious diffusion

when an idea or cultural trait spreads adjacently or to people or places that are next to or adjoining one another; sped up by social media; ex. disease, slang words

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hierarchical diffusion

the spread of an ideas or trait from a person or placed of power or authority to other people or placed; ex. fashion trends from celebrities

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stimulus diffusion

when the fundamental idea behind a cultural trait stimulates new innovation; ex. cars, smartphones

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animistic religions

centered on the fact that inanimate objects possess spirits and should be revered

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universalizing religion

a religion that attempts to appeal to a wide variety of people and that is open to membership by all, regardless of a person’s location, language, or ethnicity 

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ethnic religion

religion closely tied with a particular ethnic group generally in a particular region

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christianity

monotheistic religion based on the teachings of Jesus, a man believed by the faithful to be God’s son; hearth is West Bank and Israel; spread through relocation and expansion diffusion - missionaries, the Crusades, imperialism, colonialism

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islam

a monotheistic religion based on the messages from Muhammad, the last messenger of Allah; hearth is Mecca and Medina on Arabian Peninsula, 7th century CE; spread through conquest, trade, missionary work; shiites and sunni; the Quran

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5 pillars of Islam 

Faith, Charity, Praying, Pilgrimage, and Fasting

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Buddhism

a religion based on the teachings Siddhartha Gautama, known as Buddha, or “the Enlightened One”; hearth is northeastern india, 6th-4th century BCE; spread through missionary work

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hinduism

a religion that is not a single set of beliefs or practice; in general, Hindus believed in one eternal spirit called Brahman; hearth is South Asia, 1500 BCE; spread mostly in South Asia by relocation and expansion diffusion

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Judaism

monotheistic religion founded by the prophet Abraham; hearth is Israel and Lebanon, 4000 years ago; spread through relocation diffusion due to diasporas and antisemitism; secularized/not religious

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language family

largest grouping of related languages; includes those languages that share a common ancestral language from a particular hearth or origin; 142 language families; 6 major families make up 63% of living languages and 85% of the world’s population; Indo-European is largest family

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isolate

isolated language with no known historic or linguistic relationship with any other known language

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language branch

collection of languages within a family sharing common origin that were separated from other branches in the same family thousands of years ago; ex. romance branch of Indo-European family

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language groups (language)

language within a branch that share a common ancestor in the relatively recent past and have vocabularies with a higher degree of overlap’ ex. French, Italian, Romanian, Spanish, and Portuguese 

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dialect

variation of a standard language distinguished by differences in pronunciation, degree or rapidity in speech, word choice, and spelling

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agriculture

purposeful cultivation of plants or raising of animals to produce food and other goods for survival

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climate regions

areas that have similar climate patterns generally based on their latitude and their location on coasts or continental interiors

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subsistence agriculture

growing and raising a diverse range of crops and livestock for one’s family’s consumption

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commercial agriculture

growing crops or raising livestock for profit to sell to customers who buy these goods

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bid-rent theory

land value determines how a farmer will use the land—either intensively or extensively; land value based on distance from central market (CBD)

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central business district (CBD)

central location at the center of a city

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intensive agriculture

farmers expend a great deal of effort to produce as much yield as possible from an area of land

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intensive subsistence agriculture

higher labor, small plots of land, supports family and local community, peripheral and semi-peripheral countries

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monoculture

planting one crop or raising one type of animal annually

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monocropping

the cultivation of one or two crops that are not rotated seasonally

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plantation agriculture

large-scale commercial farming of one particular crop grown for markets often distant from the plantation

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market gardening

farming that produces fruits, vegetable, and flowers and typically serves a specific market, or urban area where farmers can conveniently sell to local grocery stores, restaurants, farmer’s markets, and road stands

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mixed crop and livestock systems

both crops and livestock are raised for profit

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crop rotation

varying of crops from year to year to allow for the restoration of valuable nutrients and the continuing productivity of the soil

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extensive agriculture

few inputs and little investments in labor and capital with lower outputs per unit area

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shifting cultivation

growing crops or grazing animals on a piece of land for a year or two, then abandoning that land when the nutrients have been depleted from the soil and moving to a new piece of land where the process is repeated

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slash and burn

clearing land but cutting down the trees and brush and, after the vegetation dries, burning this “slash”, resulting in a nutrient-rich ash fertilizer

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nomadic herding/pastoral nomadism

moving animals as needed to allow the best grazing

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transhumance

movement of herds between pastures at cooler, higher elevations during the summer months and lower elevation during the winter

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extensive commercial agriculture

little labor investment, large amounts of land, ranching

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ranching

large, open tracts of land for livestock to roam and graze

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neolithic revolution

shift from foraging to farming; marked the beginning of agriculture; more food, growing population; changing from nomadism to sedentary; non-farming work increased

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second agricultural revolution

dramatic improvements in crop yields, technological innovations like horses instead of oxen and field drainage systems; late 1700s in Britain and spread to Europe; seed, drill, mechanical reaper, crop rotation; population boom

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enclosure system

communal lands replaced by farms owned by individuals and use of the land was restricted to the owner or tenants who rented the land from the owner; basically, people starting owning land

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third agricultural revolution

further mechanization and the development of new technology, changes brought by science advances outside agriculture; GMOs; increased mechanization, tech, electricity; synthetic fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides; core countries

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GMOs

new manipulated strains of crops resistant to disease or drought, higher seed yields, etc

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green revolution

scientists used increased knowledge of genetics to develop new high-yield strains of grain crops, particularizing wheat and rice (50s-60s); high yields, reduced labor, technology owned by large corporations, increased water demand; Mexico, South Asia, India, Pakistan

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Norman Borlaug

1970 Nobel Peace Prize; “Father of the Green Revolution”

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infrastructure

structure of services, facilities, and installation needed to support various types of development

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agribusiness

large-scale system that includes the production, processing, and distribution of agricultural products and equipment 

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hybrid

varieties of plant bred to enhance desired characteristics and improve disease resistance

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vertical integration

when a company controls more than one stage of a production process

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commodity chain

a complex network that connects placed of production with a distribution to consumers

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subsidies

when the fed government provides low-cost loans, insurance, and payments to some farmers and agribusinesses (1930s, Great Depression); protects farmers; does not always protect smaller farms

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tariffs

a tax or duty to be paid on a particular import or export; protects domestic industries and agriculture from foreign competition

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debt-for-nature swaps

programs in which exchange for local investment in conservation measures, the banks agree to forgive a portion of a country’s debt