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culture
beliefs, values, practices, behaviors, and technologies shared by society and passed down from generation to generation
cultural trait
material and immaterial cultural attributes; ex. language, arts, land-use patterns, personal behavior, food and clothing
artifacts
visible objects and technologies that a culture creates; ex. house, buildings, clothing, tools, toys
sociofacts
structures and organizations that influence social behavior; ex. families, governments, educational systems, religious organizations
mentifacts
enduring elements of culture that reflect its shared ideas, values, knowledge, and beliefs; ex. language, religious beliefs
cultural norms
shared standards and patterns that guide the behavior of a group of people
popular culture
widespread behaviors, beliefs, and practices of ordinary people in society at a given point in time; spread more quickly through media
traditional culture
long-established behaviors, beliefs, and practices passed down by generations
ethnocentrism
tendency of ethnic groups to evaluate other groups according to preconceived ideas originating from their own culture; one’s cultural group is superior vs. clear discrimination
cultural relativism
evaluation of a culture solely by its unique standards; opposite or ethnocentrism; critics are concerned with accepting practices that are violations of human rights
cultural landscape
natural landscape that has been modified by humans, reflecting their cultural beliefs and values
identity
how humans make sense of themselves and how they wish to be viewed by others
sequent occupance
idea that successive societies leave behind their cultural imprint, shaping the cultural landscape
ethnicity
state of belonging to a group of people who share common cultural characteristics
ethnic neighborhoods
cultural landscapes within communities of people outside their areas of origin; ex. chinatowns, koreatowns, japan towns, little Italy, little Saigons
traditional architecture
established building styles of different cultures, religions, and places; influenced by the environment and based on localized needs and construction materials
postmodern architecture
values diversity in design and public spaces
religion
a system of spiritual beliefs that helps form cultural perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, and values; contributes to cultural values and identities; architecture styles impacted
language
system of communication
toponyms
place names, may highlight specific geographic or historical features; ex. street signs
race
combination of physical attributes in a population
racism
method of maintaining social, economic, and political order
gendered spaces
spaces designed and incorporated into the landscape to accommodate gender roles; can be supportive or restrictive; attempts to work and live outside of one’s gendered space may be difficult; ex. womens/mens bathrooms
gender identity
one’s innermost concept of self as male, female, a blend of both, or neither
safe spaces
spaces of acceptance for people sometimes marginalized by society; ex. Chelsea, West Village, NY
gentrification
renovations and improvements conforming to middle-class preferences;
third place
communal social space where they can develop a sense of self and form relationships with others
sense of place
when people fill a location with meaning, connecting it with memories and feelings
placemaking
a process in which a community collaborates to create a placed where they can live, work, play, and learn
centripetal force
force that unites a group of people
centrifugal force
a force that divides a group of people
diffusion
the process by which a cultural trait spreads from one placed to another over time
cultural hearth
the geographical location that is the source of a cultural trait
relocation diffusion
the spread of cultural traits through the movement of people
expansion diffusion
when an aspect of culture spreads outward from where it originated
contagious diffusion
when an idea or cultural trait spreads adjacently or to people or places that are next to or adjoining one another; sped up by social media; ex. disease, slang words
hierarchical diffusion
the spread of an ideas or trait from a person or placed of power or authority to other people or placed; ex. fashion trends from celebrities
stimulus diffusion
when the fundamental idea behind a cultural trait stimulates new innovation; ex. cars, smartphones
animistic religions
centered on the fact that inanimate objects possess spirits and should be revered
universalizing religion
a religion that attempts to appeal to a wide variety of people and that is open to membership by all, regardless of a person’s location, language, or ethnicity
ethnic religion
religion closely tied with a particular ethnic group generally in a particular region
christianity
monotheistic religion based on the teachings of Jesus, a man believed by the faithful to be God’s son; hearth is West Bank and Israel; spread through relocation and expansion diffusion - missionaries, the Crusades, imperialism, colonialism
islam
a monotheistic religion based on the messages from Muhammad, the last messenger of Allah; hearth is Mecca and Medina on Arabian Peninsula, 7th century CE; spread through conquest, trade, missionary work; shiites and sunni; the Quran
5 pillars of Islam
Faith, Charity, Praying, Pilgrimage, and Fasting
Buddhism
a religion based on the teachings Siddhartha Gautama, known as Buddha, or “the Enlightened One”; hearth is northeastern india, 6th-4th century BCE; spread through missionary work
hinduism
a religion that is not a single set of beliefs or practice; in general, Hindus believed in one eternal spirit called Brahman; hearth is South Asia, 1500 BCE; spread mostly in South Asia by relocation and expansion diffusion
Judaism
monotheistic religion founded by the prophet Abraham; hearth is Israel and Lebanon, 4000 years ago; spread through relocation diffusion due to diasporas and antisemitism; secularized/not religious
language family
largest grouping of related languages; includes those languages that share a common ancestral language from a particular hearth or origin; 142 language families; 6 major families make up 63% of living languages and 85% of the world’s population; Indo-European is largest family
isolate
isolated language with no known historic or linguistic relationship with any other known language
language branch
collection of languages within a family sharing common origin that were separated from other branches in the same family thousands of years ago; ex. romance branch of Indo-European family
language groups (language)
language within a branch that share a common ancestor in the relatively recent past and have vocabularies with a higher degree of overlap’ ex. French, Italian, Romanian, Spanish, and Portuguese
dialect
variation of a standard language distinguished by differences in pronunciation, degree or rapidity in speech, word choice, and spelling
agriculture
purposeful cultivation of plants or raising of animals to produce food and other goods for survival
climate regions
areas that have similar climate patterns generally based on their latitude and their location on coasts or continental interiors
subsistence agriculture
growing and raising a diverse range of crops and livestock for one’s family’s consumption
commercial agriculture
growing crops or raising livestock for profit to sell to customers who buy these goods
bid-rent theory
land value determines how a farmer will use the land—either intensively or extensively; land value based on distance from central market (CBD)
central business district (CBD)
central location at the center of a city
intensive agriculture
farmers expend a great deal of effort to produce as much yield as possible from an area of land
intensive subsistence agriculture
higher labor, small plots of land, supports family and local community, peripheral and semi-peripheral countries
monoculture
planting one crop or raising one type of animal annually
monocropping
the cultivation of one or two crops that are not rotated seasonally
plantation agriculture
large-scale commercial farming of one particular crop grown for markets often distant from the plantation
market gardening
farming that produces fruits, vegetable, and flowers and typically serves a specific market, or urban area where farmers can conveniently sell to local grocery stores, restaurants, farmer’s markets, and road stands
mixed crop and livestock systems
both crops and livestock are raised for profit
crop rotation
varying of crops from year to year to allow for the restoration of valuable nutrients and the continuing productivity of the soil
extensive agriculture
few inputs and little investments in labor and capital with lower outputs per unit area
shifting cultivation
growing crops or grazing animals on a piece of land for a year or two, then abandoning that land when the nutrients have been depleted from the soil and moving to a new piece of land where the process is repeated
slash and burn
clearing land but cutting down the trees and brush and, after the vegetation dries, burning this “slash”, resulting in a nutrient-rich ash fertilizer
nomadic herding/pastoral nomadism
moving animals as needed to allow the best grazing
transhumance
movement of herds between pastures at cooler, higher elevations during the summer months and lower elevation during the winter
extensive commercial agriculture
little labor investment, large amounts of land, ranching
ranching
large, open tracts of land for livestock to roam and graze
neolithic revolution
shift from foraging to farming; marked the beginning of agriculture; more food, growing population; changing from nomadism to sedentary; non-farming work increased
second agricultural revolution
dramatic improvements in crop yields, technological innovations like horses instead of oxen and field drainage systems; late 1700s in Britain and spread to Europe; seed, drill, mechanical reaper, crop rotation; population boom
enclosure system
communal lands replaced by farms owned by individuals and use of the land was restricted to the owner or tenants who rented the land from the owner; basically, people starting owning land
third agricultural revolution
further mechanization and the development of new technology, changes brought by science advances outside agriculture; GMOs; increased mechanization, tech, electricity; synthetic fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides; core countries
GMOs
new manipulated strains of crops resistant to disease or drought, higher seed yields, etc
green revolution
scientists used increased knowledge of genetics to develop new high-yield strains of grain crops, particularizing wheat and rice (50s-60s); high yields, reduced labor, technology owned by large corporations, increased water demand; Mexico, South Asia, India, Pakistan
Norman Borlaug
1970 Nobel Peace Prize; “Father of the Green Revolution”
infrastructure
structure of services, facilities, and installation needed to support various types of development
agribusiness
large-scale system that includes the production, processing, and distribution of agricultural products and equipment
hybrid
varieties of plant bred to enhance desired characteristics and improve disease resistance
vertical integration
when a company controls more than one stage of a production process
commodity chain
a complex network that connects placed of production with a distribution to consumers
subsidies
when the fed government provides low-cost loans, insurance, and payments to some farmers and agribusinesses (1930s, Great Depression); protects farmers; does not always protect smaller farms
tariffs
a tax or duty to be paid on a particular import or export; protects domestic industries and agriculture from foreign competition
debt-for-nature swaps
programs in which exchange for local investment in conservation measures, the banks agree to forgive a portion of a country’s debt