Human Body Systems and Anatomy: Skeletal, Circulatory, and Radiographic Principles

What does the skeletal system include?

The bones of the body.

What are the main functions of the skeletal system?

Supports/protects soft tissues, allows movement with muscles, produces blood cells, and stores calcium.

What does the circulatory system include?

Cardiovascular and lymphatic organs.

What are the main functions of the circulatory system?

Distributes oxygen/nutrients, carries waste/CO₂, protects against disease, prevents hemorrhage, and regulates temperature.

What does the digestive system include?

The alimentary canal and accessory organs.

What is the main function of the digestive system?

Breaks food down for absorption and eliminates solid waste.

What does the respiratory system include?

Lungs and air passages.

What are the main functions of the respiratory system?

Supplies oxygen, removes CO₂, and helps maintain acid-base balance.

What does the urinary system do?

Produces, collects, and eliminates urine.

What are the main functions of the urinary system?

Regulates blood chemistry, eliminates waste, balances fluids/electrolytes, and maintains acid-base balance.

What is the main function of the reproductive system?

Reproduction.

What does the nervous system include?

Brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia, and special senses.

What is the main function of the nervous system?

Regulates body activity through electrical impulses.

What does the muscular system include?

Skeletal, smooth/visceral, and cardiac muscle.

What are the main functions of the muscular system?

Movement, posture, and heat production.

What does the endocrine system include?

Ductless glands and hormones.

What is the main function of the endocrine system?

Regulates body activities through hormones carried by the blood.

What does the integumentary system include?

Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and oil glands.

What are the main functions of the integumentary system?

Protection, temperature regulation, and waste elimination through perspiration.

What is osteology?

The study of bones.

What is arthrology?

The study of joints.

How many bones are in the adult skeleton?

206.

What is the axial skeleton?

The central axis of the body; 80 bones including the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum.

What is the appendicular skeleton?

126 bones including the upper/lower limbs, shoulder girdle, and pelvic girdle.

What are sesamoid bones?

Small oval bones embedded in tendons.

What is the most well-known sesamoid bone?

The patella.

What are long bones?

Bones with a body/shaft and two ends, found only in the appendicular skeleton.

Give examples of long bones.

Humerus, femur, and phalanges.

What are short bones?

Roughly cuboidal bones consisting mainly of cancellous tissue with thin compact bone.

Give examples of short bones.

Carpals and tarsals.

What are flat bones?

Bones made of two plates of compact bone with cancellous bone/marrow between them.

Give examples of flat bones.

Calvaria, sternum, ribs, and scapulae.

What are irregular bones?

Bones with peculiar/irregular shapes.

Give examples of irregular bones.

Vertebrae, facial bones, and pelvis.

What is compact bone/cortex?

The hard outer shell of bone that provides support and protection.

What is spongy/cancellous bone?

Porous bone that often contains red marrow for blood cell production.

What is the medullary cavity?

The hollow cavity of a long bone containing yellow marrow.

What is the periosteum?

The outer covering of bone; important for bone growth, repair, and nutrition.

What is hyaline cartilage?

Cartilage that covers articulating surfaces of long bones; commonly called 'gristle.'

What is ossification?

The process by which bones form.

What is intramembranous ossification?

Bone formation in which bone replaces a membrane; occurs rapidly.

What is endochondral ossification?

Bone formation in which bone replaces cartilage.

What is the primary center of ossification?

The midbody/shaft of a long bone, called the diaphysis.

Where are secondary centers of ossification located?

Near the ends of long bones, called the epiphyses.

What is the metaphysis?

The area where bone growth in length occurs, near the junction of the shaft and ends.

What is a synarthrosis?

An immovable joint.

What is an amphiarthrosis?

A joint with limited/slight movement.

What is a diarthrosis?

A freely movable joint.

What is a fibrous joint?

A joint held together by fibrous tissue.

What is a cartilaginous joint?

A joint held together by cartilage.

What is a synovial joint?

A joint with a fibrous capsule and synovial fluid; usually freely movable.

What is a plane/gliding joint?

A joint allowing sliding or gliding with the least movement.

Give examples of plane/gliding joints.

Intercarpal, carpometacarpal, and intermetacarpal joints.

What is a ginglymus/hinge joint?

A joint that allows flexion and extension.

Give examples of hinge joints.

Elbow and interphalangeal joints.

What is a trochoid/pivot joint?

A joint allowing rotation around a single axis.

Give examples of pivot joints.

Proximal/distal radioulnar joints and C1-C2.

What is an ellipsoid/condylar joint?

A joint allowing flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction.

Give examples of ellipsoid/condylar joints.

MCP joints and the wrist.

What is a sellar/saddle joint?

A joint with concave-convex surfaces that allows multiple movements.

What is an example of a saddle joint?

The 1st CMC joint/thumb.

What is a spheroidal/ball-and-socket joint?

A joint with the greatest freedom of movement.

Give examples of ball-and-socket joints.

Shoulder and hip.

What is a bicondylar joint?

A joint that moves mainly in one direction with limited rotation.

Give examples of bicondylar joints.

Knee and TMJ.

What is a radiograph?

An image of an anatomic part produced by x-rays on an image receptor.

What is radiography?

The process and procedures of producing a radiograph.

What is an image receptor (IR)?

A device that captures the radiographic image.

What is the central ray (CR)?

The center-most portion of the x-ray beam with the least divergence.

Is 'view' an accepted positioning term?

No. Use projection or position instead.

What does the sagittal plane divide the body into?

Right and left portions.

What does the coronal/frontal plane divide the body into?

Anterior and posterior portions.

What does the horizontal/axial/transverse plane divide the body into?

Superior and inferior portions.

What is an oblique plane?

A plane at an angle; not parallel to the sagittal, coronal, or horizontal plane.

What does posterior/dorsal mean?

Back half of the patient/body.

What does anterior/ventral mean?

Front half of the patient/body.

What does plantar mean?

Sole/posterior surface of the foot.

What does dorsal foot mean?

Top/anterior surface of the foot.

What does dorsal hand mean?

Back/posterior aspect of the hand.

What does palmar mean?

Palm of the hand.

What is supine?

Lying on the back, facing upward.

What is prone?

Lying on the stomach, facing downward.

What is erect?

Upright; standing or sitting.

What is recumbent?

Reclining or lying down in any position.

What is Trendelenburg?

Head lower than the feet.

What is Fowler's/reverse Trendelenburg?

Head higher than the feet.

What is Sims/modified Sims position?

Recumbent oblique, usually on the left anterior side; commonly used in fluoroscopy exams.

What is a lateral position?

Side position.

What is an oblique position?

The body is rotated; named by the side and surface closest to the IR.

What is decubitus?

Lying down with a horizontal x-ray beam.

What does PA projection mean?

CR enters posteriorly and exits anteriorly.

What does AP projection mean?

CR enters anteriorly and exits posteriorly.

What is an AP/PA oblique projection?

The CR path is AP or PA while the body part is rotated.

What is a mediolateral projection?

CR enters medial and exits lateral.

What is a lateromedial projection?

CR enters lateral and exits medial.

What is an axial projection?

CR is angled along the long axis of the body/body part.

What is a tangential projection?

CR skims/touches a body part to profile a structure.

What are the major relationship terms you should know?

Medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep, and cephalic/caudal.

What does medial mean?

Toward the body's midline.

What does lateral mean?

Away from the body's midline.