Praxis II (5002) Reading/Language Arts

Phonological Awareness

Skill that includes identifying and manipulating units of oral language, including parts of words, syllables, onsets, and rimes.

Examples: identify and make oral rhymes, clap out the number of syllables in a word, recognize words with the same initial sounds like monkey and mother.

Phonemic Awareness

Understanding the individual sounds (or phonemes) in words

Examples: separating the sounds in the word cat into three distinct phenomes /k/, /ae/, /t/

Phonics

is understanding the relationship between sounds and the spelling patterns (graphemes) representing those sounds

Example: When a student sees a c is followed by an e, i, or y, the student knows the c makes and /s/ sound.

Phonemes

Are the individual sounds in words

Example: the letter g can make an /g/ sound, as in game, and a /j/ sound in gym

Syllables

are units of pronunciation having one vowel sound, with or without surrounding consonants, forming the whole or a part of word.

Example: There are two syllables in water (wa-ter) and three in elephant (el-e-phant)

Onsets

are the beginning consonant or consonant cluster

Example: The onset for the word tack is /t/. The onset for the word track is /tr?

Rimes

are the vowel and consonants that follow the onset

Example: in the word tack and track the rime is -ack

Blending

is the ability to string together the sounds that each letter stands for in a word

Example:When students see the word black, they blend the /bl/, the /a/ sound, and the ending /k/ sound

Segmenting

is breaking a word apart

Example: compund word baseball - base ball , onset and rime dad- /d/ /ad/, syllables -/be-hind/

Individual phonemes /c/ /a/ /t/ , Segmenting phonemes into spoken words /d/ /o/ /g/

Substituting

replacing one phenome with another in a word

Example: students say the word play, and the teacher asks them to change the first sound of play with /st/. The students say the word stay

Deleting

is when students take words apart, remove one sound, and pronounce the word without the removed sound

Example: using the word mice, a teacher may ask students to delete the initial/m/ sound, resulting in the word ice

Morphology

is the study of words and their forms

Example: In the word firehouse there are two morphemes: fire and house

Word Analysis

is a process of using relationships between spelling and pronunciation to identify words

Letter-sounds correspondence

Certain letters and combinations of letters make specific sounds

Teaching this skill in (isolation) one letter at a time, will help students become proficient

Spelling conventions

are the rules English words follow

Single letter

A single consonant letter can be represented by a phoneme

Example: b,d,f,g,h,w,y,z,s

Doublets

A doublet uses two of the same letter to spell a consonant phoneme

Example: ff, ll, ss, zz

Digraphs

Diagraphs are a two-letter (di) combinations that create one phenome

Example: th, sh, ch, wh, ph

Trigraphs

Trigraphs are three-letter (tri) combinations that create one phenome

Example: -tch, -dge

Dipthong

Dipthongs are sounds formed by the combination of two vowels in a single syllable, in which the sound begins as one vowel and moves toward another. They can appear in the initial, middle, or final position in a word.

Example: aisle, coin, loud, buy

Consonant Blends

Consonant Blends include two or three graphemes, and the consonant sounds are separate and identifiable

Example: s-c-r (scrape), c-l (clean), l-k (milk)

Silent letter combinations

use two letters: one represents the phoneme and the other is silent

Example kn (knock), wr (wrestle), gn (gnarl)

Combination qu

These two letters always go together and make the /kw/ sound

Example: quickly

Single letters

A single vowel letter that stands for a vowel sound

Example: (short vowels) cat, hit, gem, pot, sub

(long vowels) me, no, mute

Vowel teams

are combinations of two, three, or four letters that stand for a vowel sound

Example": (short vowels) head, hook

(long vowels) boat, sigh, weigh

(diphthongs) soil, bout

High-frequency

words are also referred to as sight words

Example: want, what, said, see, by, are, why, there

Decodable words

can be sounded out and follow letter-sound correspondence and spelling conventions or rules

Example: a student can decode the word expect by segmenting the word ex-pe-ct

Roots

are parts of words, without the prefix or suffix, that provide the basic meaning of the word

Example: cred means believe (incredible) bio means life (biology)

Affixes

are parts of a word added to the beginning and end of a word -prefixes and suffixes-

Structural Analysis

is the process of breaking words apart by prefixes, suffixes, and roots, and interpreting meaning

Prefixes

Additions at the beginning of a root word that forms a new word

Example: un-(unknown) dis-(disregard)

Suffixes

Additions at the end of a root word that form a new word

Example:-er (manager) -ment (encouragement)

Compound words

Two words put together

Example: mailman, sidewalk

First language (L1) Acquisition

refers to the way children learn their native language

Second Language (L2) Acquisition

refers to the learning of another language or languages besides the native language

Stage 1: Pre-Production

This is commonly known as the silent period. At this stage, students are listening and deciphering vocabulary. Students may have receptive vocabulary (listening), but they are not speaking yet. In this stage, students benefit from repetition when trying to understand new words.

Stage 2 : Early Production

This stage can last up to six months. Students at this stage understand about 1000 words in the new language. Students begin to form short phrases that may be grammatically incorrect. Students at this stage will use pictures to represent ideas in the new language.

Stage 3: Speech Emergence

At this stage, students will start to communicate with simple phrases and sentences. Students understand up to 3000 words during this stage. Students also begin to develop comprehension in the new language(L2)

Stage 4: Intermediate Fluency

During this stage, students have a robust vocabulary in the second language-6000 or more words. Students begin to communicate effectively in their writing and speech.

Stage 5: Advanced Fluency

At this stage, students are proficient and have comprehension and critical thinking in the second language. It can take 4-10 years for students to achieve academic proficiency in a second language.

World-class Instructional Design and Assessment (WIDA)

WIDA is the organization that supports multilingual students and creates standards and assessments to help with the instruction of ELLs. WIDA supports students, families, educators, and administrators with research-based tools and resources.

5 Components of WIDA Framework

1. Guiding Principles of Language Development

2. Developmentally Appropriate Academic Language in Sociocultural Contexts

3. Performance Definitions

4. Can Do Descriptors

5. Standards Matrices

Linguistic Complexity

is the quantity and variety of language used by ELLS at the discourse level, and refers to how ELLs express their ideas and understand interactions.

Language usage

refers to the type and use of structures, phrases, and words.

Effective Approaches for teaching ELLs

Visual

Cooperative Learning

Honor the “silent period”

Allow use of native language

Literacy Theorists

B.F Skinner- claimed language acquisition is based on environmental factors or influences

Noam Chomsky- “Father of Modern Linguistics” argued all humans share the same underlying linguistic structure, irrespective or sociocultural difference. Basis for his theory of universal grammar.

Closed

A syllable with a single vowel followed by one or more consonants

The vowel is closed in by a consonant

The vowel sound is usually short

Example: cat, bat, clock, letter

Open

A syllable that ends with a single vowel

The vowel is not closed in by a consonant. The vowel is usually long

The letter y acts like a vowel

Example: go, no, fly, he

Vowel-Consonant-Silent e

A syllable with a single vowel followed by a consonant with the vowel e

The first vowel sound is long, and the final e is silent

Examples: bike, skate, kite, poke

Vowel Teams

A syllable that has two consecutive vowels.

Can be divided into two types:

Long vowel teams- two vowels that make one long vowel sound (eat, seat, say, see)

Variant vowel teams- Two vowels that make neither a long nor a short vowel sounds but rather a variant, letters w and y acts as vowels (stew, paw, book)

R-controlled

A syllable with one or two vowels followed by the letter r

The vowel is not long or short. The r influences or controls the vowel sound

Example: car, far, her, fur, sir

Consonant le(-al,-el) Final Stable

A syllable that has a consonant followed by the letters le, al, or el

This is often one syllable

This is the only syllable type without the vowel sound

Example: table, stable, local

Other Final Stable Syllables

A syllable that makes one sound at the end of a word

Examples: sion, tion, ture, sure, age, tious

CVC

Consonant-vowel-consonant bat, cat, tap

CVCe

consonant-vowel-consonant-silent e -make, take, bake

CVCC

consonant-vowel-consonant-consonant tack, hunt, fast

CCVC

consonant- consonant-vowel-consonant trap,chop, grit

VC-CV

Two or more consonants between two vowels nap-kin, pen-ny

V-CV and VC-V

One consonant between two vowels e-ven, de-cent

Consonant Blend

Consonant blends stick together spec-trum

Syntactic

The syntactic cueing system focuses on the structure of the sentence

Semantic

The semantic cueing system focuses on the meaning derived from the text

Fluency

is reading without having to stop and decode (sound out) words

Prosody

is reading with expression while correctly using words and punctuation

Automaticity

which is effortless, speedy, and word recognition

Choral Reading

Reading aloud in unison with a whole class or group of students. Choral reading helps build students fluency, self-confidence, and motivation.

Repeated Reading

Reading passages again and again, aiming to read more words correctly per minute each time

Running records

Following along as a student reads, marking when he or she makes a mistake or miscue

Miscue Analysis

Look over the running record, analyzing why the student miscued, and employing strategies to help students with miscues

Comprehension

this is when students begin to form images in their minds as they read

They read fluently with prosody, automaticity, and accuracy

Critical Thinking

is when students can apply certain concepts to their reading and extract meaning from the text

Metacognition

is thinking about thinking

Strategies for boosting comprehension, critical thinking, and metacognition are predicting, questioning, read/think aloud, and summarizing

Key details

are specific pieces of information in a text

Moral

of a story is the lesson that the story teaches about how to behave in the world

Theme

is the overall feeling or underlying topic of the text

Central idea

is what the text is mostly about or what the author is trying to inform you about. Central idea often has to be inferred using text evidence.

Story map

is a graphic organizer that helps students learn the elements of a book or story by identifying characters, plot, setting, problem, and solution.

Main idea and details

graphic organizer helps students organize and categorize specific information in the text. This helps students to pick out the most important parts of the text so they can summarize effectively

Meter

is a stressed and unstressed syllabic pattern in verse or within the lines of a poe

Narrative poetry

tells a story

Fixed Verse vs Free Verse Poetry

Fixed has a set formula, free has little or no pre-established guidelines

Epic Poetry

long narrative focuses on trials/tribulations of godlike heros

Examples: Beowulf, Divine Comedy

Haiku

Line 1-5 syllables

Line 2- 7 syllables

Line 3 -5 syllables

Limerick

is a humorous verse of three long lines and two short lines, rhyming (aabba)

Sonnet

A sonnet is a poem of 14 lines using any of a number of formal rhyme schemes, typically with 10 syllables per line.

Dramas

are stories that can be acted out in front of people or an audience. Dramas include plays, screenplays, and performances

Text Features

Heading, Glossary, Index, Graphs/Charts, Sidebar, Hyperlink

Structures of informational text

Chronological, cause/effect, problem/solution

Text Structure

refers to how the information is organized in the text and can help students identify the following elements of the text

Main idea/details

Chronological order

Cause/Effect

Inferences

Key details

First Person

A narrator recounts his or her own perspective. -I, we, me, us

Second Person

The story is written in the perspective of you

Third Person Objective

The narrator remains a detached observer, telling only the stories action and dialogue -Informational texts-

Third Person Limited Omniscient

The narrator tells the story from the viewpoint of one character in the story

Third Person Omniscient

The narrator has unlimited knowledge and can describe every characters thoughts and interpret his/her behaviors

Mediums for helping students comprehend texts

Oral/audio versions of text

Staged versions of text

Film versions of text

Theme

refers to what the author wants the reader to learn or know

Examples of common themes: Acceptance, courage, perseverance, cooperation, compassion, honesty

Qualitative

This type of data cannot be quantified. Instead, the data often comes in the form of anecdotal responses or scenarios.

Example: While a teacher is observing students as they read, she notices some students struggling. She decides to intervene with a different text or targeted interventions.

Quantitative

This is data that can be quantified. When analyzing this type of data, teachers often look over reading levels, words per minute, and other measures that can be represented as numbers.

Example: A teacher uses students correct words per minutes to determine the Lexile levels of subsequent books they will use.

Reader and Task

These are the reader variables( motivation, knowledge, and experience) and task variables (purpose and complexity generated by the task assigned and question posed) These variables can be measured both qualitatively and quantitatively.

Text-Leveling Systems

Allow teachers to implement reading strategies to meet the needs of students