Ancient History - Key terms

Irrigation farming 

Irrigation farming is an agricultural method that involves artificially supplying water to crops in areas where rainfall is insufficient. Ancient civilizations relied on irrigation systems to boost agricultural yields, as changes in weather could have major social and political consequences. It allowed farmers to cultivate land that would otherwise be too dry for agriculture, such as in Southern Mesopotamia, where the land was regularly less flooded, occurring earlier in the year (February-April) before the harvesting season. Unlike in Egypt, where irrigation farming allowed the Nile to flood the land before the sowing season (July-September), so they could sow their crops in the damp soil.

Serf

The term ‘serf’ is a general term for other forms of dependent labour. Serfs were an important part of the workforce in the Near East, Mycenaean Greece, Sparta (named helots), and the later Roman Empire (named coloni). Serfs were legally tied to a lord’s estate and had limited personal freedom. Serfs owed labor and a portion of their produce to the landowner in exchange for protection and the right to cultivate plots for their own sustenance. In the Ancient Near East, serfdom was sometimes willingly imposed onto a child, so their parents could ensure a livelihood for their childre

Cnossos

Cnossos was the largest Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete and the center of Minoan civilization. The large palace with its many rooms was also often referred to by Greeks as ‘King Minos’s Labyrinth”. Located near modern Heraklion, it was home to the famous Palace of Knossos, which flourished around 1900–1400 BCE. Officially having been excavated by archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans in 1900. The palace complex was known for its advanced architecture, intricate frescoes, and administrative importance. Cnossos played a significant role in trade and cultural exchanges in the Aegean world, symbolizing the height of Minoan power

Mycenae

Mycenae was a major center of Greek civilization during the late Bronze Age, from around 1600 to 1100 BCE. Located in the northeastern Peloponnese, on the Greek mainland, Mycenae is known for its monumental architecture, such as the Lion Gate and tholos tombs, and its role as a powerful kingdom in the Mycenaean world. It played a central part in early Greek culture, including in the legendary tales of the Trojan War. Mycenae’s influence extended across the Aegean and Mediterranean regions.

Linear B

 Linear B is an ancient script used by the Mycenaean Greeks from around 1450 to 1200 BCE to record the early Greek Language, written primarily on clay tablets. Discovered on clay tablets primarily in Crete and mainland Greece, it was primarily used for administrative purposes. The script was deciphered in the 1950s by Michael Ventis and revealed detailed records of economic activity, religion, military, and uniformity in Mycenaean palaces. Linear B is the earliest known form of written Greek and provides valuable insights into Mycenaean society. 

Redistribution Economy

From the start of antiquity, with the founding of the first cities, until the collapse of the third dynasty of Ur, most societies in antiquity practiced a redistribution economy. In a redistribution economy, the king, or the temple, is the principal landowner. Serfs utilize the land for production, passing on surplus food and other products as tax to the king, or temple. The king, or the temple, then redistributes the remainder of the food, to those employed in other sectors, often using administrators to manage regional distribution

Ostracism

Ostracism was a political practice in ancient Athens (circa 1100 BCE to 529 CE) where citizens could vote to exile a person deemed a threat to the state. Introduced into Athenian society as one of Cleisthenes’ (570 BCE - 508 BCE) last measures. Once a year, the public assembly was asked whether there was any need for ostracism. If a person received enough votes, usually inscribed on pottery shards (ostraca), they were banished for ten years without loss of property or status. It was intended as a safeguard against tyranny and political dominance, allowing the Athenian democracy to protect itself from ambitious individuals.

Tyrannos

The word ‘tyrannos’, was borrowed from one of the languages of Asia Minor from the Ancient Greeks and refers to a ruler who seized power without legal right, often through force or manipulation. Originally used for an autocrat who seized absolute powers to which he was not officially entitled, however, a king could also become a tyrant by assuming powers that transcended those of a primus-inter-pares king (first among equals). A tyrannos was not always considered oppressive or with a negative connotation; some were seen as effective rulers who improved governance. However, many tyrants ruled autocratically and without regard for traditional institutions, which led to the negative reputation.

Homer

Homer was an ancient Greek poet traditionally attributed with composing the epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Iliad describes the Trojan War, in which a group of Greek Kings waged a war against the city of Troy. Whilst the Odyssey provides a detailed account of the aftermath focused on one of the Greek king Odysseus and his journey home. However his epics bear little resemblance to the society known from the Linear B tablets, instead it is a reflection of the world in Homer’s own time, Homeric society. Homer’s epics are foundational to Western literature, offering insight into Greek values, heroism, and the pantheon of gods.

Helot

A helot was a member of the enslaved class in Sparta, primarily composed of indigenous peoples subjugated by the Spartans. Helots belonged to the state and are therefore also referred to as ‘state slaves or serfs’. Helots were bound to the land, whilst the land some helots previously owned was split and assigned to individual Spartite for whom they had to till that land. Helots had to provide a significant portion of their produce to support the Spartan warrior class. Although not privately owned slaves, helots were brutally oppressed and subjected to periodic purges. They were essential to maintaining Sparta’s military-based society.

Phalanx

At the end of the sixth century, a sophisticated battle formation emerged as the phalanx. A rectangular military formation used by ancient Greek infantry, particularly hoplites. Soldiers stood shoulder to shoulder in ranks, often eight or more, with shields overlapping and spears or swords pointing forward. This tight, disciplined formation was highly effective in ancient warfare, offering protection and allowing concentrated force in battle, and calling for a strong sense of solidarity. The phalanx was a key tactic in Greek city-state armies, most famously employed by the Spartans.

Ethnos

In less-developed areas ethne prevailed. It referred to a large group of people or a tribal community sharing a common identity, language, and culture, often without the centralized political structure of a polis. Ethnē (plural) were typically rural and governed by loose tribal affiliations or local leaders, these small communities would join forces in special circumstances, in particular in military operations. Examples include groups like the Aetolians or Thessalians, who lived in regions rather than forming highly organized city-states.

Delian League

The Delian League was a confederacy of 330 Greek city-states, led by Athens in classical Greece, formed in 477-478BCE. Its main goal was to keep Greece safe and free from Persian control. However, after the Persians had been neutralized, the league was not dissolved due to Athens dominating the league, using its treasury (originally kept in Delos, then later moved to the Parthenon in Athens), for its own purposes. As Athens grew to dominate the league, member states had to pay tribute or supply forces for their growing military, for their participation which led to tension and inner conflict resulting in the eventual outbreak of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE). With the end of the Peloponnesian War, the Delian League was dissolved in 404BCE. 

Polis

A polis (plural: poleis) was a city-state in ancient Greece that served as the fundamental political, social, and economic unit. The polis included an urban center and its surrounding countryside, functioning independently in terms of governance, often with its own system of laws and military. The most famous poleis were Athens and Sparta. The polis system encouraged civic participation and the development of democratic institutions, particularly in Athens.

Parthenon

The Parthenon was built between 447 and 432, during the leadership of Pericles, and is dedicated to the goddess Athena in thanksgiving for the Hellenic victory over Persian Empire invaders during the Greco-Persian Wars. The Parthenon also served as the city’s treasure. Construction started in 447 BCE when the Delian League was at the peak of its power, and it reflects Athenian supremacy. It symbolizes the power and cultural achievements of Athens during its Golden Age, through its renowned Doric architecture, sculpture, and friezes. 

Demosthenes

He was an Athenian orator and politician during the time that Macedonia and King Philip II were gaining power. He lived between 285 to 322 BCE. He was against joining the Peloponnesian League and wanted to keep Athens independent, and was very anti-Macedonian. His contemporary, Isocrates, on the other hand, was for the unification of Greece under a powerful leader such as Philip II. Isocrates saw the conquest of Asia Minor and establishment of colonies as a war to solve many problems that were ongoing in the Greek Mainland. 

Peloponnesian War

The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) was a protracted conflict between the Delian League, led by Athens, and the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta. The war resulted from growing tensions over Athenian imperialism and Spartan fears of Athenian dominance. It ended in a Spartan victory, aided by Persian support, leading to the decline of Athens’ power and the eventual weakening of the Greek city-states, paving the way for Macedonian domination under Philip II.

Sophists

Sophists were a group of professional itinerant educators and philosophers in ancient Greece, particularly active in the 5th century BCE. They taught skills in rhetoric, reflecting on matters of states, society, language, and standard of human behavior, where they tried to apply the rational, logical way of thinking and natural philosophy. Often, they taught young aristocrats seeking political careers. Sophists were known for their relativistic views on truth and morality, which led to criticism, especially from philosophers like Plato, who accused them of undermining objective values. 

Battle of Gaugamela

The Battle at Gaugamela (331 BCE) was a decisive encounter between Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia. Despite being heavily outnumbered, Alexander’s tactical brilliance led to a decisive victory, resulting in the fall of the Persian Empire and solidifying Alexander’s control over Asia. The battle is renowned for its strategic maneuvers, including Alexander's use of cavalry and infantry to outflank Darius’s larger army. Gaugamela marked the beginning of Alexander’s dominance in the ancient world.

Seleucid Empire

The Seleucid Empire (312–63 BCE) was one of the successor states formed after the death of Alexander the Great. It was founded by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander’s generals, and controlled a vast region stretching from Anatolia to India at its height. The empire was marked by a blend of Greek and Persian cultures and was a major political and cultural power in the Hellenistic world before its decline due to internal strife and external pressure from the Romans and Parthians.

Ruler Cult

The ruler cult was a concept that came into being during the Hellenistic period. The ruler was regarded as a god who moved among mortals, as a savior and a benefactor. The ruler cult appeared when it became apparent that there was a decline in the influence of the ancient gods. Alexander the Great saw himself as a God; however, none of his Greek generals accepted this idea as it went against the Greek tradition of primus inter pares (first among equals). However, after his death, Ptolemy I let him be worshipped as a god; this continued the Egyptian idea of Pharaonic worship.

Arsacid Empire

The Arsacid (ruling family) empire was also known as the Parthian empire, established around 247 BCE by Arsaces I. In the second century BCE, it gained control of a large piece of the Seleucid empire and the heartland of Mesopotamia. Although there are a few written sources from the Parthians themselves, which show that their material culture interacted strongly with Greek, Iranian, and Central Asian traditions. Due to their large size, they would become a notorious eastern opponent for the Roman Empire. 

Hellenization debate

There is an ongoing debate about how Hellenization underwent. In the past people believed that it was only the Hellenic culture that was being adapted by the people in the new Hellenic world. However, there is proof that people barely got Hellenised as Greek and Greek culture was only popular among the upper ranks of the Hellenic society. Thus people, outside of the upper ranks continued to practice their culture as they did in the past and they kept speaking their language. On the other hand, non-Hellenic culture was adapted by the Greeks, such as the worship of Isis and mixing Greek art styles with non-Greek art styles. There was thus more a hybridization instead of a takeover of Greek culture. 

Satrapy

The territory governed by a satrap, is known as a satrapy or super-province. This tradition of dividing kingdoms into satrapies was started at the inception of the Persian or Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great (around 530 BCE). A satrap was ruled by governors, however they did not have the divine right of kinds to legitimize their rule over the satrapy. The satrap ruled thus in the name of the king, but couldn’t rule independently from the king. Dividing an empire into satrapies continued into the Hellenistic period. 

Consul

Consul was the highest political rank in the Roman empire, and was one of the two annually elected chief magistrates. Consuls held supreme civil and military authority (imperium) and presided over the Senate and assemblies. They led armies, implemented laws, and acted as the highest judicial officials. The office was designed to ensure checks and balances, as the two consuls could veto each other’s decisions, preventing the concentration of power in a single individual. In times of crisis they could elect a dictator that would stand for six months. In the imperial period being a consul was a more symbolic task.

Social War 

The Social War (91–88 BCE) was a conflict between Rome and its Italian allies (socii) who sought Roman citizenship and equal rights. The war broke out when Rome refused to grant these privileges, despite the allies’ long service in Roman armies. The allies established their own state but were eventually defeated when Rome started to make concessions and with their military power. Rome extended citizenship to most Italian communities (e.g. Latins), effectively ending the conflict and incorporating them into the Roman state. They enjoyed two types of citizenships, Roman and local.

First Triumvirate

The First Triumvirate was an informal political alliance formed in 60 BCE between Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. This alliance allowed them to dominate Roman politics by pooling their resources and influence to bypass senatorial authority. Each member had their own objectives: Caesar sought military command, Pompey wanted land for his veterans, and Crassus aimed to enhance his financial and political power. It eventually disintegrated due to rivalry and conflict.

Romulus

Romulus is the legendary founder and first king of Rome. According to myth, he and his twin brother Remus were raised by a she-wolf after being abandoned as infants. Romulus later killed Remus in a dispute and established the city of Rome in 753 BCE. He is credited with forming Rome’s early institutions, military, and governance. Romulus symbolizes Rome’s origins and its martial and civic virtues.

Imperium

Imperium refers to the supreme authority granted to certain Roman magistrates and commanders, giving them the power to command armies, govern provinces, and enforce the law. First exercised by the first kings of Rome, and after the foundation of the republic it was exercised by the chief magistrates. Those holding imperium could exercise it within Rome or abroad, depending on their rank and role. The principle of collegiality provided that each of the magistrates of the same level (two consuls) who held it, should hold it to the same degree, which made it possible for both to veto. In the last years of the republic the imperium was sometimes granted for specific terms beyond one year.

Plebs

 The plebs (or plebeians) were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not part of the aristocratic patrician class. They comprised farmers, artisans, merchants, and laborers. Throughout the early Republic, the plebeians struggled for political rights and equality, leading to the Conflict of the Orders. Their demands led to significant political reforms, including the creation of the Tribune of the Plebs, which gave them representation and some protection against patrician abuses.

Principate

The Principate, ‘first citizen’ (27 BCE–284 CE), was the first Roman political system in the first two centuries of the imperial age, established by Augustus, who favoured the title princeps to differentiate himself from kings (bad reputation). It was characterized by the coexistence of republican institutions and imperial rule, with the emperor (princeps) holding supreme power while maintaining the façade of the Republic. The system aimed to balance autocracy and traditional Roman values, allowing emperors to govern with the Senate’s cooperation.

Romanization

Romanization refers to the process through which conquered peoples in the Roman Empire adopted Roman culture, language, laws, and lifestyle. This cultural assimilation was encouraged through the establishment of Roman cities, citizenship grants, military service, and the spread of Latin. It led to a unified cultural identity across diverse regions, integrating local elites and promoting stability within the vast empire.

Tacitus

Tacitus (c. 56–120 CE) was a prominent Roman historian and senator known for his critical accounts of the early Roman Empire. His major works, including the Annals and Histories, provide detailed narratives of imperial politics, focusing on themes of corruption, tyranny, and the decline of Roman values. Tacitus thought that a monarchy was the only possible form of government, but he criticized its shortcomings and regretted the loss of republican freedom. His sharp prose and skepticism towards autocratic rule make him one of the most influential Roman historians.

Limes

The Limes were fortified frontiers and border defenses of the Roman Empire, marking the boundary between Roman-controlled territories and barbarian lands. Examples include the Hadrian’s Wall in Britain and the Rhine-Danube Limes in Europe. These fortifications included walls, forts, watchtowers, and roads, serving to regulate trade, prevent invasions, and project Roman power in frontier regions.

Mithras

Mithras was a deity (god of light and truth) which was associated with a mystery religion called Mithraism, popular among Roman soldiers from the 1st to 4th centuries CE. This cult, likely of Persian origin, emphasized themes of salvation, loyalty, and the cosmic struggle between good and evil. Followers practiced secret rituals in underground temples (mithraea), which symbolized the god’s journey and sacrifice. Mithraism rivaled early Christianity before being suppressed in the late Roman Empire.

The Year of the Four Emperors

The Year of the Four Emperors (69 CE) was a chaotic period in which four emperors—Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian—claimed the throne in rapid succession after the death of Nero. The power struggle led to civil war and political instability, ultimately ending with Vespasian’s victory and the establishment of the Flavian dynasty, restoring stability to the Roman Empire.

Julianus Apostata

Julianus Apostata (Julian the Apostate, 331–363 CE) was the Roman emperor who ruled from 361 to 363 CE. He earned the title "Apostate" due to his rejection of Christianity and attempts to restore paganism as the dominant religion in the empire. A philosopher (influenced by neo-platonism) and military leader, Julian tried to revive ancient Roman religious practices and values. His reign was brief, ending when he died during a campaign against Persia, which marked the last attempt to restore Roman paganism. 

Diocletian

Diocletian (244–311 CE) was a Roman emperor who ruled from 284 to 305 CE. He is best known for his administrative reforms, including the division of the empire into the Eastern and Western Roman Empires, governed by the Tetrarchy (rule of four). Diocletian’s reforms aimed to stabilize the empire amid internal strife and external invasions. He also launched the last and most severe persecution of Christians before the rise of Constantine (who established Christianity as state religion)

Constantine

Constantine the Great (c. 272–337 CE) was the Roman emperor who ruled from 306 to 337 CE. He is best known for being the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, traditionally regarded as the first Christian emperor. Furthermore, he is known for establishing Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) as the new capital of the Roman Empire. His reign marked the beginning of the Christianization of the empire, particularly through the Edict of Milan (313 CE), which granted religious tolerance for Christians. Finally, he increased the fiscal burdens of the Empire and built churches. 

Sassanids

The Sassanid empire was an Iranian empire that lasted from 224 to 651. It was founded by Ardashi I. The main religion of this empire was Zoroastrianism. This religion is a dualistic religion where the supreme god is called Ahura Mazda and the opposition to this god is Angra Mainyu, a destructive spirit. Due to the rise of Islam, the Sassanid empire fell to the early Muslim conquests. The Sassanids were formidable opponents to the Romans as they were well organized. 

Franks

The Franks were a group of Germanic tribes that settled in the Roman province of Gaul (modern France) in the 4th and 5th centuries CE, serving in the Roman army providing many imperial generals after having been defeated by the Romans in the 3rd century CE. Under the leadership of Clovis I, they united into a powerful kingdom and played a crucial role in the transition from Roman to medieval Europe. The Franks eventually established the Carolingian Empire, which became the dominant power in Western Europe during the early Middle Ages.

Nicaea

Nicaea was the site of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, convened by Emperor Constantine. The council addressed the Arian controversy, which questioned the nature of Christ’s divinity (whether he was both man and god or purely man), and resulted in the formulation of the Nicene Creed, a statement of Christian faith affirming the belief in the Trinity. The Council of Nicaea was a key moment in the development of Christian orthodoxy and the unification of the church’s doctrine. It attempted to get rid of other conflicting heresies by establishing Christian law.