comparative politics !!

Explain and analyse three ways in which rational theory could be used to study the UK Parliament and the US congress

P1- voting behaviour- may vote on legislation based on their personal goals, such as re-election, career advancement, or aligning with their constituents' preferences- UK, MPs may rebel against party lines to maintain support in their constituency- US Congress, members may vote against party policies, especially in swing districts, to appeal to moderate voters- Rational theory explains how voting behavior reflects self-interest rather than party ideology

P2- party loyalty and whips- MPs may comply with the party whip to gain promotions, such as a ministerial position however may defy if it conflicts with contituencies interests- Congressional members may follow party leadership to secure funding for their district however like Uk may break ranks if policy is unpopular with local voters- highlights the conflict between personal beliefs and party loyalty

P3- role in committees- prioritize committee membership and activities that align with their policy interests- (UK): MPs may seek positions on influential select committees like the Public Accounts Committee- Congress, members strategically join committees such as Appropriations or Armed Services to steer funding- act strategically to maximize influence and gain recognition

Explain and analyse three ways rational theory could be used to study the relationship of the UK PM and the US president with their respective cabinets

P1- control over appointments- both leaders select cabinet members who align with their goal- johnson appointing Brexiteers after his leadership election- Biden’s diverse cabinet reflecting campaign promises to appeal to voter groups- highlights how the PM and President use appointments to consolidate power, maintain support

P2- managing dissent and unity- PM may tolerate critical voices in the cabinet (e.g., Theresa May including Remainers during Brexit negotiations) to prevent splits- Obama balancing progressives and moderates in his cabinet- leaders weigh the costs of internal disagreements against the benefits of appeasing key factions

P3- cabinet as a tool- use their cabinets to enhance their public image or achieve specific political goals-PM may convene the cabinet primarily to present a united front to the public- President may use cabinet meetings as symbolic events, showcasing bipartisanship or action on key issues reagan’s use of cabinet meetings as photo opportunities- eaders manipulate the cabinet’s public role for personal or political gain

Explain and analyse three ways rational theory could be used to study the debates about civil rights in the UK and the USA

P1- political stance- politicians support or oppose civil rights based on their electoral interests, party alignment, or public opinion- UK): Politicians may support legislation like the Equality Act 2010 to gain the backing of progressive voters- The Civil Rights Act of 1964 saw President Lyndon B. Johnson pushing for its passage, not just for ethical reasons but also to secure African American support for the Democratic Party- political leaders calculate the risks and benefits of their stance on civil rights

P2- interest groups- act strategically to influence legislation and public opinion- UK): Organizations like Stonewall campaigned for LGBTQ+ rights by lobbying MPs and running public awareness campaigns for same sex marriage- NAACP used legal strategies, such as the Brown v. Board of Education case, to challenge segregation laws- xplains how interest groups prioritize tactics (e.g., litigation, lobbying, protests) that maximize their impact

P3- voter attitudes- voters assess their personal interests when forming opinions on civil rights issues- UK Opposition to certain civil rights reforms, such as policies on immigration or affirmative action, may stem from voters perceiving these as threats to job opportunities or cultural identity- voters in the South historically opposed civil rights reforms, fearing economic competition and loss of social privilege, leading to the "Southern Strategy" by Republicans- shaped by a calculated assessment of how these policies align with their own priorities

Explain and analyse three ways rational theory could be used to study campaign finance in the UK and USA

P1-donor behaviours- contribute to candidates or parties expecting returns, such as favorable policies or influence- UK CONS donors for business friendly policies or labour donors for workers rights- Super PACs and wealthy donors fund candidates aligned with their economic or ideological interest NRA and republican candidates- donors calculate the potential benefits of their contributions based on their policy goals

P2- party fundraising strategies- target donors and allocate resources where they can have the most electoral impact- spending limits, parties focus on funding marginal constituencies and targeting specific demographic groups- US candidates employ diverse fundraising methods, including grassroots donations (e.g., Bernie Sanders' reliance on small donations) or courting wealthy donors- dapt strategies to maximize fundraising efficiency and electoral advantage

P3- finance regulations- adapt to and exploit campaign finance regulations to maximize financial support while being legal- Strict spending caps lead parties to prioritize targeted spending, such as digital advertising- Citizens United v. FEC ruling (2010) created opportunities for unlimited spending by Super PACs- manipulate or work within legal frameworks to maximize their financial and political advantages

Explain and analyse three ways cultural theory can be used to study the role of political traditions in shaping US presidential elections

• Regional Political Traditions: Long-standing regional cultures shape voting behaviour, with the South leaning conservative due to historical emphasis on states' rights, while the Northeast tends to be more progressive.

• Ideologies and Social Norms: Voter behaviour is influenced by dominant party ideologies—Republican individualism vs. Democratic collectivism—and norms like the two-party system that shape candidate strategies and voter expectations.

• Impact of Historical Events: Major events like the Civil Rights Movement and the New Deal reshaped party loyalties, particularly in the South, with lasting effects on voter alignment in presidential elections.

Explain and analyse three ways cultural theory can help explain public attitudes toward federalism in the US.

• Regional Identity: Cultural theory explains how regional identities, especially in the South, shape preferences for state power and skepticism toward federal authority, rooted in historical experiences like slavery and civil rights conflicts.

• Historical Tradition: Public attitudes toward federalism are shaped by past experiences with centralization, such as reactions to New Deal policies, with some regions viewing federal expansion as overreach.

• Ideological Differences: Conservative states often value individualism and limited government, leading to stronger support for state autonomy and resistance to federal control, reflecting broader political culture.

Explain and analyse three ways structural theory can be applied to study the influence of checks and balances in the US political system.

P1- legislation over exec- Structural theory highlights how the legislative branch is designed to hold the executive accountable w override vetoes and approve amendments impeachment etc- obama appointment denied- Structural theory explains how the institutional design of Congress allows it to constrain the President’s power and ensure that executive actions align with the will of the legislature. This institutional rivalry helps to maintain balance and prevent executive overreach

P2- judicial review- explores how the judicial branch’s authority to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional acts as a powerful check on both the legislature and executive- Marbury v. Madison (1803), the Supreme Court established the principle of judicial review- Court has invalidated executive actions, such as in United States v. Nixon (1974), where it ordered President Nixon to turn over tapes during the Watergate hows how the design of the judicial branch, with life tenure and independence from the other branches, allows it to act as an impartial checl

P3- president veto power- theory illustrates how this power creates a system of negotiation between the President and Congress, fostering a balance of power- Bush v. Gore (2000), the President’s veto power can prevent Congress from passing legislation that is contrary to executive priorities- Structural theory explains how the veto power embedded in the presidency is not just a check on the legislative process, but a strategic tool that forces cooperation

Explain and analyse three ways structural theory helps explain the design and operation of the US Constitution.

P1- seperation powers- emphasizes how this division creates distinct institutional roles and responsibilities- establishes three distinct branches of government—legislative, executive, and judicial—each with separate functions to avoid concentration of power- shows how the Constitution’s design ensures that power is divided, creating institutional boundaries that influence governance and decision-making

P2- checks and balances- explains how these institutional checks operate to maintain equilibrium- Constitution includes mechanisms that enable each branch to limit the powers of the others, fostering accountability and preventing dominance by any single branch- Structural theory highlights the importance of institutional interdependence and oversight, ensuring that no branch can operate unchecked

P3- federalism- examines how this framework ensures both national unity and local autonomy- Constitution divides power between the federal government and state governments, creating a dual sovereignty system- Enumerated powers in Article I, Section 8 (e.g., taxation, defense) are reserved for the federal government and 10th amendment- Structural theory explains the interplay between federal and state governments, illustrating how this balance operates to address diverse governance needs

Explain and analyse three ways structural theory can be used to understand the balance of power between federal and state governments in the US.

P1- const framework- highlights the importance of the Tenth Amendment, enumerated powers, and the Supremacy Clause in defining this balance- Tenth Amendment reserves powers not delegated to the federal government for the states, reinforcing their autonomy- Structural theory underscores how the Constitution's framework inherently creates tension and negotiation between federal and state authorities

P2- role of s.c- focuses on how judicial rulings either expand or constrain federal authority relative to states- United States v. Lopez (1995): Limited Congress’s power under the Commerce Clause, favoring state sovereignty- explains how the Supreme Court acts as a key arbiter, influencing the evolving balance of federal and state power

P3- federal funding machines- theory examines how institutional arrangements allow the federal government to exert power indirectly over states- Unfunded mandates, like aspects of the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990), impose obligations on states without providing corresponding funding- Structural theory highlights how financial structures empower the federal government to shape state actions, blurring the lines of autonomy

Explain and analyse three ways rational theory can be applied to the actions of US Supreme Court justices.

P1- ideological alignment- Justices may vote in line with their ideological preferences- explains this as justices seeking to influence the law in ways consistent with their personal philosophies- repub Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022), overturning Roe v. Wade to align with pro-life ideological goals- Rational theory explains how justices act strategically to ensure rulings reflect their ideological values

P2- insitituion protection-rational calculations to avoid decisions that could provoke backlash or undermine the Court’s reputation- Chief Justice Roberts voting to uphold the Affordable Care Act in NFIB v. Sebelius (2012), despite his conservative leanings- narrow decisions in politically contentious cases, such as Bush v. Gore (2000), aiming to preserve institutional credibility- justices balance their preferences with the need to maintain the Supreme Court’s role

P3- public opinion- may consider public opinion in their rulings, acting rationally to avoid significant public resistance- Court’s gradual expansion of LGBTQ+ rights, as seen in Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)- Avoidance of direct challenges to gun control laws immediately after high-profile mass shootings to avoid public outcry- Rational theory highlights how justices act with an awareness of public opinion, balancing their legal reasoning with strategic considerations

Explain and analyse three ways rational theory can be used to study voter behavior in US elections.

P1- issue based voting- Rational theory suggests voters prioritize candidates whose policies align with their personal beliefs or preferences on key issues.-This involves assessing policy platforms and choosing the candidate that maximizes their desired outcomes.- Democratic candidate in 2020 due to policies on climate change and healthcare reform- xplains how voters weigh policy positions against their own priorities to make electoral decisions

P2- economic self interest- base their decisions on economic conditions, supporting candidates they believe will improve their financial well-being or overall economic security- "Reagan Democrats" of the 1980s, who shifted to the Republican Party due to dissatisfaction with economic performance under Democratic leadership- Swing voters in the Rust Belt supporting Trump in 2016- personal economic circumstances or expectations can drive voter choice

P3- candidate eval- assess candidates’ qualities, such as competence, integrity, and leadership skills- Obama’s appeal in 2008, with voters valuing his message of hope and change, alongside his perceived competence during the financial crisis- Concerns about Hillary Clinton’s trustworthiness in 2016- Rational theory highlights how voters’ evaluations of candidates’ personal characteristics influence their choices

Explain and analyse three ways cultural theory can be used to compare attitudes toward civil liberties in the UK and US

• Tradition and Legal Foundations: The US’s revolutionary history promotes a strong cultural emphasis on individual liberties and judicial protection (e.g., Bill of Rights), while the UK’s evolutionary path leads to rights shaped by parliamentary acts and legal tradition (e.g., Human Rights Act).

• Codified vs. Uncodified Constitutions: The US’s codified constitution entrenches explicit individual rights, fostering strong cultural attachment, whereas the UK’s flexible, uncodified system emphasizes adaptability and collective rights through evolving laws.

• Security vs. Liberties: Cultural norms shape responses to security; Americans often resist state overreach (e.g., post-9/11 backlash), while UK citizens are more accepting of surveillance measures due to greater trust in government authority.

Explain and analyse three ways structural theory helps explain differences in the power of the executive in the UK and US

P1- president requires congressional approval for key actions, such as passing legislation or declaring war.- Executive orders can bypass Congress but are subject to judicial review- Prime Minister often commands a majority in the House of Commons, enabling easier passage of legislation.- The PM chairs Cabinet meetings- highlights how the separation of powers in the US limits executive dominance, while the fusion of powers in the UK empowers the Prime Minister

P2- legislative dependence and gridlock- mean the US president operates independently of the legislature, often facing gridlock, whereas the UK Prime Minister depends on maintaining a parliamentary majority- Divided government can lead to legislative gridlock, such as during Obama’s presidency when Republicans controlled Congress- Prime Minister with a large majority, such as Tony Blair, can push through significant legislative reforms with limited opposition or A minority government, as seen under Theresa May- explains how the US system’s independent executive branch limits unilateral power, while the UK’s parliamentary system enhances executive power when majorities are secure

P3- accountability- impeachment is a formal mechanism to hold presidents accountable but is rarely used (e.g., Trump’s impeachments in 2019 and 2021 and term restrictions- Votes of no confidence can immediately remove a Prime Minister, as seen with James Callaghan in 1979- Structural theory demonstrates how fixed terms and impeachment limit presidential power, while the UK Prime Minister’s tenure is more flexible but contingent on parliamentary and party support

Explain and analyse three ways structural theory can be used to compare the role of constitutions in the UK and US political systems

P1- sep powers v parl sov- president and Congress have distinct powers outlined in the Constitution, such as the president’s veto power and Congress’s ability to override it while s.c interprets uit- executive (Prime Minister and Cabinet) derives authority from Parliament, reflecting a fusion of powers.- Parliament has the ultimate authority to make or repeal laws e.g brexit- highlights how the US Constitution’s separation of powers limits governmental overlap, while the UK’s lack of a single document allows for a more centralized and flexible authority

P2-judicial review- Marbury v. Madison (1803) established the principle of judicial review, allowing the Supreme Court to strike down unconstitutional laws.- Decisions like Roe v. Wade demonstrate the judiciary’s power- Judicial review is limited to interpreting and ensuring laws comply with existing statutes and human rights obligations e.g parl progrogue 2019- explains the differing roles of the judiciary as dictated by the constitutional frameworks, with the US courts playing a more active role

P3- flexibility amendment process- 27 amendments have been made since the Constitution’s ratification, reflecting its rigidit and issues like gun control remain contentious due to the difficulty of altering- Constitutional changes, such as the devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, were achieved through ordinary Acts of Parliament and brexit decisions- Structural theory highlights the rigidity of the US Constitution as a constraint on change, while the UK’s uncodified framework allows for more dynamic governance

Explain and analyse 3 ways that structural theory could be used to study the extent of the UK prime minister's and the US president's accountability to their respective legislatures

P1- parl sov v sep powers- highlights how the UK’s parliamentary system creates direct accountability for the Prime Minister through regular interactions with Parliament, while the US President’s accountability is shaped by the separation of powers- PMQs) serve as a formal mechanism for holding the PM to account weekly.- Votes of no confidence- Congress cannot directly remove a president except through impeachment, emphasizing indirect accountability.- The veto override mechanism illustrates institutional checks- explains why the UK Prime Minister faces greater day-to-day accountability, while the US President is subject to periodic

P2-oversight mechanisms- emphasizes institutional tools available to legislatures to scrutinize the executive- Parliamentary select committees can call ministers, including the PM, to give evidence on policy decisions- Congressional committees investigate executive actions, such as the January 6th hearings into President Trump’s conduct- shows how the design of legislative oversight mechanisms creates differing scopes and intensities of accountability in the UK and US systems

P3- fixed terms- considers the rules governing the tenure of leaders and the authority of legislatures in removing or constraining them- Fixed-term Parliaments Act (2011) allowed for early elections under specific conditions, illustrating Parliament’s structural influence on the PM’s accountability - May’s authority was undermined by Parliament’s repeated rejections of her Brexit deal- president’s fixed four-year term limits Congress’s ability to enforce immediate accountability, except through impeachment.- Congressional control of the budget ("power of the purse") provides indirect accountability

Explain and analyse 3 ways that cultural theory could be used to study the relative power of the UK prime minister and US president

• Historical Development: Leadership roles are shaped by historical precedents—e.g., the "imperial presidency" in the US and strong PMs like Thatcher in the UK—defining how power is traditionally exercised.

• Media and Public Perception: US presidents are expected to dominate the media and set the national agenda, while UK prime ministers operate in a more confrontational media environment, especially during PMQs.

• Public Expectations: American culture demands strong, centralized presidential leadership (e.g., post-9/11), while UK leaders are expected to govern through cabinet consensus, reflecting different democratic norms.

EXPLAIN AND ANALYSE 3 WAYS IN WHICH RATIONAL THEORY CAN BE USED TO STUDY CABINET APPOINTMENTS IN THE US AND THE UK

P1- politcal loaylty- suggests that leaders prioritize appointing loyal allies to their cabinets to ensure support- Presidents often reward campaign allies with cabinet positions, such as President Biden appointing Pete Buttigieg- Prime ministers, like Boris Johnson, appointed loyal Brexiteers to key positions to ensure alignment on Brexit policies- Rational theory explains how loyalty ensures leaders can rely on their cabinets to back their policy decisions, minimizing the risk of public opposition

P2- expertise- suggests leaders balance loyalty with competence, as appointing skilled individuals helps implement policy effectively- Presidents often select experts or individuals with significant experience, such as Janet Yellen’s appointment as Treasury Secretary- Rishi Sunak’s appointment of Jeremy Hunt as Chancellor during economic uncertainty- highlights the strategic trade-off between appointing loyalists and selecting individuals

P3- balancing factions- suggests that leaders use cabinet appointments to appease different factions within their party or appeal to key demographic groups- Biden’s cabinet appointments emphasized diversity (e.g., Deb Haaland as the first Native American Interior Secretary) to reflect America’s demographics- David Cameron appointing both Eurosceptics and pro-EU members to his cabinet to manage party divisions- explains how leaders strategically allocate cabinet positions to strengthen party unity and electoral prospects

Explain and analyse three ways in which structural theory could be used to study the passage of legislation through the Congress and Parliament

P1- seperation powers v parl sov- president and Congress are from the same party, gridlock can occur due to the independent nature of the legislative and executive branches- strong majority government can often pass legislation easily, as seen with Boris Johnson's Conservative government passing the Brexit withdrawal agreement in 2020- Structural theory explains how the independent structure of Congress slows the legislative process, while the UK's centralized structure allows governments with majorities to pass laws more efficiently

P2- role of committees- highlights the significance of committees in shaping legislation. In the US, committees have substantial power to amend, block, or advance bills. In the UK- Congressional committees, such as the House Ways and Means Committee, play a central role- Public Bill Committees review bills line by line but rarely make significant changes- reveals how the decentralized committee system in Congress allows for greater scrutiny and potential delays

P3- influence of bicameralism- Both Congress and Parliament are bicameral, but their structures lead to different legislative dynamics- Legislation must pass through both the House and Senate, often requiring compromise such as affordable care act- House of Lords can delay legislation and suggest amendments but cannot block bills outright due to the Parliament Acts- Structural theory explains why bicameralism in Congress leads to more frequent legislative deadlock, while the UK system allows the Commons to maintain legislative dominance

Explain and analyse 3 ways in which rational choice theory can be used to study how members of the House of Reps and Commons work

P1-reelection strategies- legislators prioritize actions that increase their chances of reelection- US prioritize district-level concerns, as they face re-election every two years. For example, securing federal funding for local projects (pork-barrel politics)- MPs in marginal constituencies may focus on highly visible constituency work to retain voter support- shows how the frequency of elections in the US encourages short-term, district-focused behavior, while UK MPs balance constituency work with broader party responsibilities

P2- legislative behaviour-often weigh the benefits of supporting or opposing legislation based on the political or personal advantages it offers- Representatives may vote against party lines if their district’s preferences conflict with party policy- MPs face the trade-off between party loyalty (to maintain leadership support) and representing their constituents, such as during Brexit votes

P3- interaction w party leadership- interact strategically with party leadership to secure benefits like committee assignments, promotions- Representatives often align with party leadership on key votes to secure positions on influential committees - MPs often adhere to the party whip to secure positions in government or avoid deselection by the partyshows that US legislators are more independent due to a decentralized party system, whereas UK MPs are incentivized to comply

Explain and analyse three ways in which rational theory could be used to study the influence of pressure groups in the UK and the USA

1. Strategic Lobbying

• Explanation: Rational choice theory assumes pressure groups act strategically to maximise influence.

• Application: Groups focus lobbying efforts on politicians or institutions that are most likely to deliver favourable outcomes.

• Example: In the US, the NRA targets key congressional committees; in the UK, business groups may lobby government departments like the Treasury.

• Analysis: This shows pressure groups act in calculated ways to maximise returns on resources.

2. types of methods used based on access and public perception direct action

3. Decision to Support or Oppose Policies/Parties

• Explanation: Pressure groups calculate the political costs and benefits of supporting or opposing certain policies or parties.

• Application: They may avoid opposing popular policies to protect public image or focus efforts on swing issues.

• Example: Environmental groups might support green policies proposed by traditionally conservative parties if it advances their goals.

• Analysis: Demonstrates rational adaptation to political opportunity structures

Explain and analyse three ways in which structural theory could be used to study the impact upon government of pressure groups upon government in the UK and the US

P1- highlights how the design of political systems determines the opportunities pressure groups- NRA can lobby and influence- Confederation of British Industry (CBI) focus on influencing the executive, as power is more concentrated-Structural differences explain why US pressure groups operate on multiple levels, while UK groups concentrate their efforts on centralized institutions

P2- role of judiciary- emphasizes the role of courts in shaping policy- Planned Parenthood use litigation to challenge state laws that restrict abortion- Liberty have used judicial avenues like the European Court of Human Rights, though their ability to influence domestic law- Structural theory explains why US pressure groups rely heavily on litigation, while UK groups must focus on lobbying and public campaigns to effect change

P3-federalism v unitary- structural theory explores how the division of power in federal systems (US) and unitary systems (UK) shapes pressure group strategies- Sierra Club lobby state governments to pass stricter environmental laws when federal action is limited- Greenpeace UK focus on influencing national policy due to the centralization of power, although devolution has provided some regional access points- Structural theory explains the greater flexibility of US pressure groups to navigate different levels of government, while UK groups operate primarily at the national level

Explain and analyse three ways in which cultural theory could be used to study pressure groups in the US and the UK

• Alignment with Cultural Values: Pressure groups gain influence by aligning with national values—e.g., NRA with American individualism and Friends of the Earth with the UK’s collective environmental focus.

• Media Use: Groups like Black Lives Matter and Extinction Rebellion effectively use media to frame issues and generate public support, reflecting how cultural narratives shape media strategies.

• Mobilizing Collective Identity: Advocacy groups build solidarity through shared identities (e.g., LGBTQ+ and gender equality movements), enhancing cohesion and sustained activism.

Explain and analyse three ways rational theory could be used to study the impact of the US and UK SC on government

P1-judicial decision making- weigh legal precedents, public opinion, and political pressures - roe v. Wade (1973), the Supreme Court expanded abortion rights, balancing judicial precedent with societal trends; later, in Dobbs v. Jackson (2022), a more conservative court overturned Roe due to ideological changes- miller cases emphasises role of protecting parl sovereignty- act strategically to avoid overreach or backlash

P2- gov response to judicial decisions- gov adapt to or resist court rulings- after Brown v. Board of Education (1954), Southern states resisted desegregation for decades, using legislative loopholes- Miller II, the Johnson government adjusted its legislative agenda but used the ruling to critique judicial activism- calculation governments make to comply with or contest judicial decisions

P3- pressure groups- pressure groups use courts to achieve policy outcomes- ACLU frequently challenge government policies on civil rights, as seen in cases like Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)- groups like Liberty challenge government actions through judicial review opposing policies under HRA- strategically choose legal battles to maximize their chances of influencing government policy

Cultural theory comparing us and uk Const

• history - Magna Carta glorious revolutions - parl sov - uncodified easy to amend - US didn’t want monarchy - founding fathers wanting republicanism and representative - sep powers to end fusion but inflexible Const

• Hereditary principles- 92 hereditary peers - lords spiritual provide formal link between church and state - us tries to separate but superficial due to rise of evangelical Influence - southern states and Bible Belt - ruling dynastic families such as Kennedy bush Clinton’s

• Individual rights - US stronger due to their attachment to individual liberty however uk still has strong - bassi not till 14th amendment nor franchise granted till 29th century