PSYCH 202- Lifespan Development (chapter 9)

developmental psychology

scientific study of development across a lifespan. focuses on how people change and mature

physical development

involves growth and changes in body, brain, senses, motor skills, and health

cognitive development

involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity

psychosocial development

involves emotions, personality, and social relationships 

developmental milestones

approximate ages reach specific normative events (ex: crawling, walking, writing, dressing, naming colors, speaking in sentences, and starting puberty)

continuous development

smooth slope of progression

discontinuous development

growth in more discrete stages

universality

is development essentially the same for all children?

achievement gap

persistent difference in grades, test scores, and graduation rates among students of different ethnicities, races, and in certain subjects- sexes. it is strongly influenced by socioeconomic differences

psychosexual theory of development

process proposed by Freud in which pleasure-seeking urges focus on different erogenous zones of the body as humans move through five stages of life

oral psychosexual stage

birth to one year old. the new ego directs the baby’s sucking activities toward a breast or bottle. if needs are not met appropriately, the individual may develop such habits as thumb sucking, fingernail biting, and pencil chewing in childhood and overeating and smoking later in life

anal psychosexual stage 

one to three years old. toddlers and preschoolers enjoy holding and releasing urine and feces. toilet training becomes a major issue between parent and child. if parents insist that children be trained before they are ready, or if they make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may appear in the form of extreme orderliness and cleanliness or messiness and disorder

phallic psychosexual stage

three to six years old. as preschoolers take pleasure in genital stimulation, Freud’s Oedipus conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls arise: children feel a sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and hostility toward the same-sex parent. to avoid punishment and loss of parental love, they suppress these impulses and, instead, adopt the same-sex parent’s characteristics and values. as a result, the superego is formed, and children feel guilty whenever they violate its standards

latency psychosexual stage

six to eleven years old. sexual instincts die down, and the superego develops further. the child acquires new social values from adults and same-sex peers outside the family 

genital psychosexual stage

adolescence. with puberty, the sexual impulses of the phallic stage reappear. if development has been successful during earlier stages, it leads to marriage, mature sexuality, and the birth and rearing of children. this stage extends through adulthood

Erik Erikson

stage theorist, emphasizes social nature of development, personality development during lifespan, social interactions affects sense of self or ego identity, people are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas, eight stages of development over lifespan, each stage has a conflict or task to resolve, successful task completion results in competence and healthy personality, failure leads to feelings of inadequacy 

trust vs mistrust

trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met

autonomy vs shame/doubt

develop a sense of independence in many tasks

initiative vs guilt

take initiative on some activities. may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped

industry vs inferiority

develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not

identity vs confusion

experiment with and develop identity and roles

intimacy vs isolation

establish intimacy and relationships with others

generativity vs stagnation

contribute to society and be part of a family

integrity vs despair

assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions

Jean Piaget

stage theorist, focused on cognitive growth, believed thinking is central to development, children are naturally inquisitive, children do not think and reason like adults, the theory holds that cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, exemplifying the discontinuity approach, each new stage is a distinct shift in thought and reasoning

schemata

concepts (mental models) that help us categorize and interpret information. by adulthood, you should have one for everything

assimilation

incorporate new information into existing schema (refine)

accommodation

change schemata based on new information and create new schema

sensorimotor stage

birth to 2 years, learn through their senses and motor behavior. 5 and 8 months, child develops object permanence and about the same time exhibit stranger anxiety

object permanence

understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists

stranger anxiety

fear of unfamiliar people. cannot assimilate stranger into an existing schema and can’t predict experience with stranger which leads to a fear response

preoperational stage

2 to 7 years old, can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas. engage in pretend play and begin to use language. cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information and cannot perform mental operations (don’t have conservation). display egocentrism

conservation

if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added

egocentrism

children cannot take the perspective of others; think everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do

concrete operational 

7 to 11 years old, think logically about real (concrete) events, firm grasp on use of numbers, start using memory strategies, perform mathematical operations and understand transformations (ex: add is opposite of subtract), master conservation, understand principle of reversibility

principle of reversibility

objects can be changed and then returned to their original form or condition

formal operational

11 to adulthood, think logically only about concrete events, and can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. a renewed egocentrism occurs 

postformal stage

decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts 

moral development 

pre-conventional morality (before age 9), conventional morality (early adolescence), post-conventional morality (once formal operational thought is attained, only a few achieve)

germinal stage (week 1-2) 

mother and father pass DNA on to the child at conception, the genetic makeup and sex of the baby are determined

conception

when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote begins as a one-cell structure

mitosis (genetics)

first week after conception, the zygote divides and multiplies, going from a one-cell structure to two cells, then four, and so on. the more this process occurs, cells become more specialized, forming organs and body parts 

embryonic stage (weeks 3-8)

after zygote divides for 7-10 days, implants itself in lining of uterus, upon implantation known as an embryo, blood vessels grow and form the placenta. basic structures start to develop into areas that will become head, chest, and abdomen. heart begins to beat and organ form and begin to function. neural tube forms along back of the embryo, developing into spinal cord and brain

placenta

a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord

fetal stage (weeks 9-40)

after nine weeks, an embryo is called a fetus. about the size of a kidney bean. 9-12 weeks the sex organs begins to differentiate. 16 weeks fetus the fetus is 4.5 inches (fingers and toes are fully developed). 24 weeks weighs up to 1.4 pound (hearing has developed, internal organs have formed enough that a fetus born prematurely has a chance of surviving). 16-28 weeks brain continues to develop, doubling in size form. 36 weeks weighs about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches long. 37 weeks all fetus’s organ systems are developed enough to survive. 40 weeks birth

teratogen

any environmental agent- biological, chemical, or physical- that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus. can influence sperm and ovum (drugs impact the health of the DNA)

fetal alcohol syndrome

excessive alcohol consumption while pregnant. physically, a small head size and abnormal facial features. cognitively, poor judgment, poor impulse control, higher rates of ADHD, learning issues, and lower IQ scores

rooting reflex

when you stroke a baby’s cheek, she naturally turns her head in that direction and begins to suck

sucking reflex

automatic, unlearned, sucking motions

grasping reflex

put your finger into a newborn’s hand, baby automatically grasps anything that touches his palms

moro reflex

newborn’s response if feels like falling; spreads her arms, pulls them back in, and then usually (cries) 

motor skills

ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects

fine motor skills

use muscles in fingers, toes, and eyes. enables coordination of small actions (ex: grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon)

gross motor skills

use large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (ex: balancing, running, and jumping) 

age 2 milestones

physical- kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs

personal/social- plays alongside other children; copies adults

language- points to objects when named; puts 2 to 4 words together in a sentence

cognitive- sorts shapes and colors; follows two-step instructions

age 3 milestones

physical- climbs and runs; pedals tricycle

personal/social- take turns; expresses many emotions; dresses self

language- names familiar things; uses pronouns 

cognitive- plays make believe; work toys that have parts (levers, handles)

age 4 milestones

physical- catches balls; uses scissors 

personal/social- prefers social play to solo play; knows likes and interests 

language- knows songs and rhymes by memory 

cognitive- names colors and numbers; begins writing letters 

age 5 milestones

physical- hops and swings; uses a fork and a spoon

personal/social- distinguishes real from pretend; likes to please friends

language- speaks clearly; uses full sentences

cognitive- count to ten or higher; prints some letters and copies basic shapes

cognitive development

suggest very young children have an understanding of objects and how they work. Piaget (1954) would have said that is beyond their cognitive abilities due to their limited experiences in the world

cognitive milestones

infants shake their head “no” around 6-9 months

9-12 months respond to verbal requests like “wave bye-bye” or “blow a kiss”

toddlers (12-24 months) have mastered object permanence 

enjoy games like hide and seek

realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back

toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects

theory of mind (TOM)

between 3 and 5 years old, children understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs different from their own. when children develop this, they can recognize that others might have false beliefs 

cognitive skills

continue to expand in middle and late childhood (6-11 years old). thought processes become more logical and organized. understand concepts such as the past, present, and future 

attachment

long-standing connection or bond with others

Harlow’s monkey experiments

feelings of comfort and security are critical components to maternal-infant bonding

John Bowlby

attachment- affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with mother. bond helps with normal social and emotional development. attachment bond is very powerful and continues throughout life

secure base/healthy attachment

parental presence gives child a sense of safety as explores surroundings. caregiver must be responsive to the child’s physical, social, and emotional needs. caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions 

Mary Ainsworth

do children differ in ways they bond, and if so, why

parent-child attachments

secure, avoidant, resistance

secure attachment

most common parent-child attachment. toddler prefers his parent over a stranger; attachment figure is secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of stress. distressed when their caregivers left but happy to see them when they returned

avoidant attachment

child is unresponsive to parent , does not use parent as a secure base, does not care if the parent leaves. when parent returns, child is slow to show a positive reaction

resistance attachment

display clingy behavior, but reject attachment figure’s attempts to interact, do not explore toys in the room, during separation they became extremely disturbed and angry with the parent. when parent returns, children are difficult to comfort

disorganized attachment

behaved oddly in strange situation. freeze, erratically run around the room or try to run away when caregiver returns 

self-concept

primary psychosocial milestone is the development of a positive sense of self, or an understanding of who they are

authoritative parenting style

parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child’s point of view. parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them

authoritarian parenting style

parents places high value on conformity and obedience, parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth. this style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids 

permissive parenting style

kids run the show and anything goes; make a few demands and rarely use punishment; very nurturing and loving, and may be friends rather than the parents 

uninvolved/neglectful parenting style

parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; don’t respond to the child’s needs and make relatively few demands 

temperament

innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment

easy temperaments

positive emotions, adapt well to change, and are capable of regulating emotions

difficult temperaments

negative emotions, difficulty adapting to change, and regulating emotions

adolescence

begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood. time to develop independence from parents while remaining connected to them. age ranges from 12 to 18 years old. some predictable physical, cognitive, and psychological milestones