Psychology ERQ practice

Discuss one example of a potential influence of culture on one behavior or cognition.

Studies: Kulkofsky et al (2011), Chen et al (2005)

Key vocabulary/description of theory: Individualism vs. collectivism (I-C); cultural norms, any term relevant to behavior

Critical thinking: Many studies are rather artificial, it is difficult to know whether priming is actually successful, it is not possible to isolate culture as a variable, culture is dynamic - it changes over time - so research that is older may no longer be valid today - that is, it may suffer from a lack of temporal validity.

Keyterm: Evaluate research on (ERQ)

Discuss the role of cultural dimensions in behavior.

Studies: Kulkofsky et al (2011), Chen et al (2005)

Key vocabulary/description of theory: cultural dimension, individualism vs. collectivism

Critical thinking: The difficulty in measuring a dimension and its effect, the question of stereotyping and confirmation bias (research bias), what is the difference between a dimension and one's social identity? Research is often artificial - lacks research under natural conditions.

Potentially be asked to evaluate research on

Discuss one or more studies of the enculturation of one behavior.

Studies: Hilliard and Liben (2010), Kimball (1986)

Key vocabulary/description of theory: Gender roles, enculturation, social cognitive theory, schema

Critical thinking: Difficulty of measuring enculturation - lack of ecological or internal validity; many of the studies are rather old and may lack temporal validity; there is no measure of biological factors in many of these studies - if it is difficult to know which behaviors are learned and which may be pre-programmed genetically.

Keyterms: evaluate research

Discuss acculturation.

Studies: Lueck and Wilson (2010), Wang et al (2010)

Key vocabulary/description of theory: Acculturation, acculturative stress, marginalization, separation, integration, assimilation.

Critical thinking: The use of questionnaires and surveys may result in demand characteristics; studies are often cross-sectional, meaning that they do not observe change over time. Difficult to operationalize and measure the level of the four outcomes in Berry and Sam's model.

Keyterms: evaluate research

Discuss ethical considerations in the study of the influence of culture on behavior and/or cognition.

Studies: Any study from dimensions, enculturation, acculturation, or globalization

Key vocabulary/description of theory: You should be able to define and explain the different ethical considerations

Critical thinking: Why was deception used in the study that you are describing?  Why is informed consent important?  How can consent influence the results of a study? Why is the anonymity of the sample important? To what extent does a study lead to stress or harm?  How could this be justified?

Keyterms: Discuss

Discuss the use of one or more research methods in the study of the influence of culture on behavior and/or cognition.

Studies: Any research may be used from dimensions, enculturation, acculturation, or globalization. 

Key vocabulary/description of theory: Remember that the research methods are: case studies, experiments, observations, interviews, correlational studies, and questionnaires/surveys.

Critical thinking: You should be able to discuss the strengths and limitations of each of the methods.  This should include the question of cause and effect, ecological validity, replicability, internal validity, uses of controls, and potential ethical considerations.

Keyterms: Contrast, evaluate

Discuss Social Cognitive Theory

Studies: Kimball (1986), Charlton et al (2002)

Key vocabulary/description of theory: Attention, retention, motivation, and potential. Vicarious reinforcement.  Self-efficacy.

Critical thinking: Because a gap exists between when one observes the model and when one may demonstrate the behavior, it is difficult to establish that the behavior is the result of observing the model. Neither does social learning theory explain why some people never learn a behavior, in spite of the above criteria being met.  There are difficulties in measuring self-efficacy. Studies were natural experiments - so the researcher cannot control other variables. Studies in laboratories lack ecological validity.

Keyterms: Evaluate

Discuss Social Identity Theory

Studies: Hilliard and Liben (2010), Rogertz and Frantz (1961)

Key vocabulary/description of theory: Social categorization, social identification, social comparison, in-group/out-group, in-group bias

Critical thinking: Theory may be more explanatory than predictive, many of the studies are low in ecological validity, difficult to measure social identities, salience, and self-esteem, there is biological support for in-group/out-group classification, and there are many applications of the theory.

Keyterms: Evaluate

Discuss one or more theories of the formation of stereotypes

Studies: Hilliard and Liben (2010), Rogertz and Frantz (1961)

Key vocabulary/description of theory: stereotype, illusory correlation, confirmation bias, the grain of truth hypothesis, cognitive misers.

Critical thinking: Cross-sectional studies like Rogers & Frantz do not show change over time; difficult to observe stereotype formation in real-time - studies lack ecological validity. Ethical considerations in inducing stereotypes. Difficult to know from laboratory studies the long-term effects of creating stereotypes.

Evaluate for ERQs

Discuss one or more effects of stereotyping on behaviour

Studies: Steele and Aronson (1995), Martin and Halverson (1983)

Key vocabulary/description of theory: stereotype threat, illusory correlation.

Critical thinking: Ethical considerations of the research; ecological validity; the inability to actually observe cognitive processes, and stereotype threat research has not shown a high level of reliability.