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Behavioral Perspective
Focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they're learned.
Associative Learning
Learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment.
Habituation (Non-Associative Learning)
Decreased response to a repeated stimulus over time.
Classical Conditioning
A learning process that pairs a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response until the neutral stimulus alone elicits that response.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without conditioning.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
The natural reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.
Conditioned Response (CR)
A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that becomes conditioned.
Acquisition
The initial stage in classical conditioning during which association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus is learned.
Extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus no longer follows the unconditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
Stimulus Discrimination
Learning to respond only to the original stimulus, and not to other similar stimuli.
Stimulus Generalization
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Higher-Order Conditioning
A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.
Counterconditioning
A behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors.
Taste Aversion
The intense dislike and/or avoidance of particular foods that have been associated with nausea or discomfort.
One-Trial Conditioning
Conditioning that occurs with only one pairing of a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
Biological Preparedness
The propensity of living beings to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning.
Operant Conditioning
A method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.
The Law of Effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Primary Reinforcers
Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs.
Secondary Reinforcers
Events that acquire reinforcing qualities through their association with primary reinforcers.
Reinforcement Discrimination
Occurs when an organism learns to make a response in the presence of one stimulus but not another.
Reinforcement Generalization
The spread of a response to stimuli similar to the one that was conditioned.
Punishment
An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.
Positive Reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.
Negative Reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock.
Positive Punishment
The administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring.
Negative Punishment
The removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring.
Shaping
A conditioning paradigm used primarily in the experimental analysis of behavior.
Instinctive Drift
The tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response.
Superstitious Behavior
Behavior that increases in frequency because its occurrence is accidentally paired with the delivery of a reinforcer.
Reinforcement Schedules
A rule stating which instances of a behavior will be reinforced.
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement & Punishment.
Positive Reinforcement
ADD pleasant stimulus/consequence to increase behavior.
Negative Reinforcement
REMOVE aversive stimulus to increase behavior.
Positive Punishment
ADD aversive stimulus/consequence to reduce behavior.
Negative Punishment
REMOVE pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.
Fixed Schedule
Number of behaviors or length of time intervals is constant.
Variable Schedule
Number of behaviors or length of time intervals is variable.
Fixed Ratio
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
Fixed Interval
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Variable Ratio
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Variable Interval
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
Partial Reinforcement
Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
Learned Helplessness
The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.
Social Learning Theory
The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.
Vicarious Conditioning
Learning that occurs through observing the reactions of others to an environmental stimulus.
Insight Learning
A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Cognitive Maps
A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.
Developmental Psychology
The study of continuity and change across the life span.
Stability and Change
The debate regarding which traits persist through the lifespan and which change.
Nature and Nurture
The longstanding discussion about the relative importance of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) in their influence on behavior and mental processes.
Continuous Development
The view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills.
Discontinuous Development
The view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages.
Cross-sectional Research
A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.
Longitudinal Research
Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.
Teratogens
Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.
Milestones
Important markers of development such as walking, talking, and grasping objects.
Prenatal Development
The process that occurs between the formation of the zygote and birth.
Fine Motor Coordination
The ability to make movements using the small muscles in our hands and wrists.
Gross Motor Coordination
The ability to make movements using the large muscles in our arms, legs, and torso.
Maturation
Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.
Anxious Attachment
An attachment style characterized by a concern that others will not reciprocate one's desire for intimacy, resulting in frequent anxiety.
Disorganized Attachment
An attachment style characterized by a lack of clear attachment behavior, signals, and responses.
Temperament
Basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin.
Separation Anxiety
Emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment.
Contact Comfort
The physical and emotional comfort that an infant receives from being in physical contact with its mother.
Parallel Play
Activity in which children play side by side without interacting.
Pretend Play
Play involving imaginary people and situations; also called fantasy play, dramatic play, or imaginative play.
Imaginary Audience
Adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern.
Personal Fable
Adolescents' belief that they are special and unique, so much so that none of life's difficulties or problems will affect them regardless of their behavior.
Social Clock
The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.
Emerging Adulthood
A period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.
Stage Theory of Psychosocial Development (Erikson)
A theory that identifies eight stages in which a healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood.
Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erik Erikson's theory centers around the infant's basic needs being met by the parents.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of human development in which toddlers develop independence and personal agency.
Initiative vs. Guilt
The third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, where the child finds independence in planning, playing, and other activities.
Industry vs. Inferiority
The fourth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. The stage occurs during childhood between the ages of approximately six and eleven.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
The sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage explores relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erik Erikson's seventh stage of psychosocial development, wherein middle-aged adults find meaning in contributing to the development of younger individuals.
Integrity vs. Despair
The eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson's stage theory of psychosocial development, occurring in late adulthood.
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
Potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood (0-17 years) such as experiencing violence, abuse, or neglect, witnessing violence in the home or community, or having a family member attempt or die by suicide.
Achievement (adolescent development)
Typically refers to the attainment of educational qualifications, professional development, or success in a particular career or field.
Diffusion (adolescent development)
In terms of identity development, refers to an apathy toward identity exploration; no commitment to roles or ideologies.
Foreclosure (adolescent development)
The identity status of a person who has not engaged in any identity experimentation and has established an identity based on the choices or values of others.
Moratorium (adolescent development)
The identity status of individuals who are in the midst of an identity crisis but who have not made a clear commitment to an identity.
Possible Selves
The component of self-concept that involves individuals' ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming.
Sensorimotor Stage
The stage of cognitive development from 0-2 years where key concepts include object permanence and stranger anxiety.
Preoperational Stage
The stage of cognitive development from 2-7 years characterized by egocentrism, animism, and pretend play.
Concrete Operational Stage
The stage of cognitive development from 7-11 years during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.
Formal Operational Stage
The stage of cognitive development normally beginning about age 12 during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.
Lev Vygotsky
A psychologist known for his sociocultural theory of cognitive development, emphasizing how culture and social interactions guide cognitive development.
Scaffolding
A technique used by a teacher to adapt their support methods to fit the student's current level of performance, gradually decreasing the guidance as the student becomes more competent.
Zone of Proximal Development
The difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with help.
Ecological Systems Theory
A theory introduced by Bronfenbrenner that explains how the inherent qualities of a child and their environment interact to influence how they will grow and develop.
