Psychological Research Methods and Statistics

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering psychological research methodologies, statistical analysis concepts, and ethical standards as outlined in the lecture notes.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one’s pre-existing beliefs.

Hindsight bias

The tendency of people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been predicted.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident in one's knowledge or abilities than is objectively accurate.

Independent Variable

The factor in an experiment that is manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect.

Dependent Variable

The outcome factor that is measured in an experiment and may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Case Study

An in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event to reveal universal principles.

Falsifiable Hypothesis

A testable prediction that is phrased in a way that allows it to be proven false.

Confounding Variables / Third Variable Problem

Factors other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment, confounding the results.

Scatterplot

A graph consisting of a cluster of dots used to represent the values of two variables and determine the correlational coefficient.

Placebo

An inactive substance or fake treatment used as a control in experiments to test the effectiveness of a real drug or treatment.

Qualitative Measures

Research methods that collect non-numerical data, such as structured interviews.

Quantitative Measures

Research methods that collect numerical data, such as Likert Scales.

Peer Review & Replication

The process of having experts evaluate a study's merit and the ability for other researchers to repeat the study to see if findings extend to other circumstances.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences between the groups.

Correlation

A statistical measure of the relationship between two variables, indicating how well either factor predicts the other.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical procedure for combining the results of many different research studies to reach a single conclusion.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the environment.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definitions

Carefully worded statements of the exact procedures or measurements used in a research study.

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution of a data set.

Central Tendency

Statistical measures that identify a single value as representative of an entire distribution, including mean, median, and mode.

Variation

Measures that describe how spread out or dispersed the data points are, such as Range and Standard Deviation.

Percentile Rank

A measure indicating the percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or lower than a specific score.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Normal Curve

A bell-shaped curve representing the percentages of distributions, characterized by specific skewness and potential bimodal distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Regression toward the mean

A phenomenon that occurs when more data is collected, causing extreme or unusual scores to fall back toward the average.

Population

The entire group from which a sample may be drawn for a study.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population from which it was drawn.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Convenience Sampling

A sampling technique that involves using participants who are easy to reach or readily available.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample of a population.

Generalization

The extent to which research findings and conclusions from a study conducted on a sample can be applied to the population at large.

Experimental and Control Groups

The experimental group receives the treatment (independent variable), while the control group does not, serving as a comparison.

Single-Blind vs. Double-Blind

In a single-blind study, participants do not know their group assignment; in a double-blind study, neither the participants nor the research staff know who is in which group.

Experimenter Bias

When a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of study participants to respond in a way they believe will be viewed favorably by others.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance; influenced by the size of the sample.

Correlation does NOT equal causation

The principle that just because two variables are related does not mean that one variable causes the other.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

An administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects by reviewing research proposals.

Informed Consent

The ethical requirement that research participants be told enough about a study to choose whether they wish to participate.

Protection from Harm

The ethical standard ensuring that participants are not placed in situations that cause physical or psychological distress.

Confidentiality

The ethical principle requiring that researchers keep information about individual participants private.

Deception / Confederates

The use of misleading information in research, often involving confederates (actors playing participants), which requires specific ethical justification.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.