Western Hemisphere Before Contact

Migration and Early History, Archaic Indians and Technological Shifts, Eastern Woodland Cultures

What is Beringia, and why is it significant in North American history?

Beringia was a land bridge connecting Asia to North America, exposed during the Ice Age (25,000–14,000 years ago). It allowed Paleo-Indians to migrate into the Americas in small groups over thousands of years.

What were Clovis points, and how were they used?

Clovis points were spearheads used by Paleo-Indians to hunt large game, like mammoths. They were first discovered in New Mexico and signify the hunting culture of early North Americans.

Why did the mammoth population decline, and what impact did this have on Paleo-Indians?

Mammoths declined due to overhunting and climate change. This forced Paleo-Indians to adapt by hunting smaller animals and gathering plant foods, leading to cultural diversification.

How did Archaic Indians differ from Paleo-Indians?

archaic Indians relied on smaller game, foraged plants, and developed tools like traps, nets, and hooks. They moved seasonally and began forming cyclical migration patterns.

What was the significance of Folsom points?

Folsom points were smaller spearheads used to hunt bison, representing a technological advance. They were eventually replaced by bows and arrows around 500 CE for greater range and efficiency.

Where were the Eastern Woodland cultures located, and how did they survive?

These cultures thrived in the Mississippi, Ohio, Tennessee river valleys, Great Lakes, and Atlantic coast. They relied on deer, nuts, seeds, and the Three Sisters (corn, beans, squash) for sustenance.

What is the significance of Cahokia?

Cahokia, located in modern-day Missouri and Illinois, was a major urban center peaking around 1100 CE. It featured Monk’s Mound, a flat-top pyramid, and advanced agricultural practices.

Who were the Adena-Hopewell cultures, and what did they contribute?

Based in modern Ohio, these mound builders thrived 2,500 years ago. They traded extensively and created intricate burial mounds with artifacts like mica carvings and stone pipes.

What were pueblos, and who built them?

Pueblos were multi-unit dwellings and ceremonial spaces built by Southwest cultures like the Anasazi (Ancestral Puebloans). Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, is a notable example.

How did the Makah and Chumash cultures differ in lifestyle?

he Makah, based in Washington, were whalers who relied on cedar for tools and homes. The Chumash, from California, were known as “seashell people” and created rock art for religious purposes.

What is the Iroquois Confederacy, and why is it significant?

The Iroquois Confederacy, or Haudenosaunee, formed around 1100 CE in modern New York. It united five nations and was a powerful patrilineal society with agricultural and diplomatic prowess.

What was unique about Iroquois longhouses?

Longhouses, central to Iroquois society, were large communal homes symbolizing unity. They were primarily built by the Onondaga, the leading group in the Confederacy.

What were Chinampas, and how did the Mexica use them?

Chinampas were artificial islands made from lake sediment, used for agriculture. The Mexica built them in Lake Texcoco, enabling the rise of Tenochtitlan as a powerful urban center.

What role did human sacrifice play in Mexica culture?

Human sacrifice was central to Mexica religion, seen as necessary to feed the sun god, Huītzilōpōchtli. Captured prisoners were often sacrificed as a display of warrior bravery and religious devotion.

How did Native American views on property differ from Europeans?

Land was communal and assigned for use, not owned permanently. This contrasted with European notions of private property.

What was the role of women in most Native American cultures?

Women were often responsible for agriculture and had significant autonomy. Many cultures were matrilineal, with status and kinship passing through the female line.

How did Native Americans communicate without a formal writing system?

Communication included rock art, carvings, bark scrolls, and textiles. For example, the Ojibwe recorded songs and recipes on birch bark, and the Incas used knotted strings (quipu).

What are the Three Sisters, and why are they important?

The Three Sisters are corn, beans, and squash. They provided a balanced diet, supported agricultural sustainability, and allowed for population growth.

How did trade networks influence Native American cultures?

Extensive trade networks spread goods like obsidian, mica, and shells across regions, fostering cultural exchange and technological advancement.

What led to the decline of major pre-Columbian cultures like Cahokia and Chaco Canyon?

Cahokia declined due to climate changes (a mini Ice Age), while Chaco Canyon’s culture ended due to prolonged drought.