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Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
Habituation
The decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated exposure.
Associative learning
Learning that certain events occur together; includes classical and operant conditioning.
Stimulus
Any event or situation that evokes a response.
Cognitive learning
Acquisition of mental information through observation, language, or instruction.
Classical conditioning
A type of learning where one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.
Behaviorism
The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
Neutral stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.
Unconditioned response (UR)
The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US).
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
Conditioned response (CR)
A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.
Acquisition
The initial stage of learning when a response is established.
Higher-order conditioning
When a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.
Extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous recovery
The reappearance of a conditioned response after a pause.
Generalization
The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Discrimination
The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and irrelevant stimuli.
Operant conditioning
A learning method where behavior is influenced by its consequences.
Law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to occur.
Operant chamber
A device used to study operant conditioning.
Reinforcement
Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Shaping
Gradually guiding behavior toward a desired goal.
Discriminative stimulus
A stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement
Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.
Negative reinforcement
Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior.
Primary reinforcer
An innately reinforcing stimulus, satisfying a biological need.
Conditioned reinforcer
A stimulus that gains its power through association with a primary reinforcer.
Reinforcement schedule
A pattern that defines how often a behavior is reinforced.
Continuous reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement
Reinforcing a response only part of the time.
Fixed-ratio schedule
Reinforces a response after a specified number of responses.
Variable-ratio schedule
Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed-interval schedule
Reinforces a response after a fixed time period.
Variable-interval schedule
Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
Punishment
An event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.
Biofeedback
A system for recording and feeding back information about physiological states.
Respondent behavior
Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus.
Operant behavior
Behavior influenced by its environment and consequences.
Cognitive map
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
Latent learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Insight
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Intrinsic motivation
Desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
Extrinsic motivation
Desire to perform a behavior to gain rewards or avoid punishment.
Coping
Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.
Problem-focused coping
Tackling a stressful problem directly.
Emotion-focused coping
Reducing stress by avoiding or ignoring stressors.
Learned helplessness
Passive resignation after repeated exposure to uncontrollable events.
External locus of control
Belief that external forces control one's fate.
Internal locus of control
Belief that one controls their destiny.
Self-control
The ability to regulate impulses and delay gratification.
Observational learning
Learning by observing others.
Modeling
Imitating observed behavior.
Mirror neurons
Brain cells that fire when performing or observing an action.
Prosocial behavior
Positive, constructive, and helpful behavior.
Ivan Pavlov
Known for his work on classical conditioning; famously demonstrated conditioning with dogs salivating in response to a bell.
John B. Watson
Pioneer of behaviorism; conducted the 'Little Albert' experiment to demonstrate classical conditioning in humans.
B.F. Skinner
Leading figure in operant conditioning; designed the Skinner box to study reinforcement and punishment.
Edward Thorndike
Developed the law of effect, which influenced the principles of operant conditioning.
John Garcia
Researched taste aversion and demonstrated that not all stimuli are equally effective for conditioning.
Robert Rescorla
Showed that cognitive processes, like predictability, are involved in classical conditioning.
Edward Tolman
Studied latent learning and cognitive maps in rats navigating mazes.
Albert Bandura
Known for his research on observational learning and the Bobo doll experiment, which highlighted modeling and imitation.
Abraham Maslow
Developed the hierarchy of needs, emphasizing self-actualization as a key motivator.
William Masters and Virginia Johnson
Researchers who described the human sexual response cycle.
William James
Co-creator of the James-Lange theory of emotion, suggesting emotions result from physiological arousal.
Stanley Schachter
Co-developer of the two-factor theory of emotion, emphasizing cognition in emotional experiences.
Hans Selye
Identified the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) as the body's response to stress.
Motivation
A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.
Instinct
A complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species.
Drive-reduction theory
The idea that a physiological need creates a drive that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.
Homeostasis
The maintenance of a balanced or constant internal state.
Incentive
A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.
Yerkes-Dodson law
The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.
Hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, starting with physiological needs and culminating in self-actualization.
Glucose
A sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues.
Set point
The point at which an individual’s 'weight thermostat' is supposedly set.
Basal metabolic rate
The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.
Sexual response cycle
Masters and Johnson’s four-stage model of sexual arousal: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
Refractory period
A resting period after orgasm during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.
Sexual dysfunction
A problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.
Estrogens
Sex hormones that contribute to female sexual characteristics and peak during ovulation.
Testosterone
The most important male sex hormone, stimulating the development of male sex characteristics.
Emotion
A response of the whole organism involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience.
James-Lange theory
The theory that emotions arise from awareness of physiological responses to stimuli.
Cannon-Bard theory
The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the experience of emotion.
Two-factor theory
Schachter and Singer's theory that emotion is based on physical arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal.
Polygraph
A machine used to detect lies by measuring physiological responses.
Facial feedback effect
The tendency of facial expressions to trigger corresponding emotions.
Health psychology
A subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine.
Stress
The process of perceiving and responding to events deemed challenging or threatening.
General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
Tend and befriend response
Under stress, people (especially women) may seek and give support.
Psychophysiological illness
Stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension or headaches.
Psychoneuroimmunology
The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes affect the immune system and health.
Lymphocytes
White blood cells of the immune system; B lymphocytes fight bacteria, and T lymphocytes attack viruses and cancer cells.
Coronary heart disease
The clogging of heart vessels, often linked to stress and poor health behaviors.
Type A
Competitive, hard-driving, impatient, and aggressive personality type linked to heart disease.
Type B
Easygoing and relaxed personality type.
