AP Psychology Unit 6 and 8 Vocab

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

Habituation

The decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated exposure.

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together; includes classical and operant conditioning.

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response.

Cognitive learning

Acquisition of mental information through observation, language, or instruction.

Classical conditioning

A type of learning where one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Behaviorism

The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Unconditioned response (UR)

The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US).

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a response is established.

Higher-order conditioning

When a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a pause.

Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and irrelevant stimuli.

Operant conditioning

A learning method where behavior is influenced by its consequences.

Law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to occur.

Operant chamber

A device used to study operant conditioning.

Reinforcement

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Shaping

Gradually guiding behavior toward a desired goal.

Discriminative stimulus

A stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior.

Primary reinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus, satisfying a biological need.

Conditioned reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its power through association with a primary reinforcer.

Reinforcement schedule

A pattern that defines how often a behavior is reinforced.

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time.

Fixed-ratio schedule

Reinforces a response after a specified number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedule

Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedule

Reinforces a response after a fixed time period.

Variable-interval schedule

Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Punishment

An event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

Biofeedback

A system for recording and feeding back information about physiological states.

Respondent behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus.

Operant behavior

Behavior influenced by its environment and consequences.

Cognitive map

A mental representation of the layout of an environment.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Intrinsic motivation

Desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Extrinsic motivation

Desire to perform a behavior to gain rewards or avoid punishment.

Coping

Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

Problem-focused coping

Tackling a stressful problem directly.

Emotion-focused coping

Reducing stress by avoiding or ignoring stressors.

Learned helplessness

Passive resignation after repeated exposure to uncontrollable events.

External locus of control

Belief that external forces control one's fate.

Internal locus of control

Belief that one controls their destiny.

Self-control

The ability to regulate impulses and delay gratification.

Observational learning

Learning by observing others.

Modeling

Imitating observed behavior.

Mirror neurons

Brain cells that fire when performing or observing an action.

Prosocial behavior

Positive, constructive, and helpful behavior.

Ivan Pavlov

Known for his work on classical conditioning; famously demonstrated conditioning with dogs salivating in response to a bell.

John B. Watson

Pioneer of behaviorism; conducted the 'Little Albert' experiment to demonstrate classical conditioning in humans.

B.F. Skinner

Leading figure in operant conditioning; designed the Skinner box to study reinforcement and punishment.

Edward Thorndike

Developed the law of effect, which influenced the principles of operant conditioning.

John Garcia

Researched taste aversion and demonstrated that not all stimuli are equally effective for conditioning.

Robert Rescorla

Showed that cognitive processes, like predictability, are involved in classical conditioning.

Edward Tolman

Studied latent learning and cognitive maps in rats navigating mazes.

Albert Bandura

Known for his research on observational learning and the Bobo doll experiment, which highlighted modeling and imitation.

Abraham Maslow

Developed the hierarchy of needs, emphasizing self-actualization as a key motivator.

William Masters and Virginia Johnson

Researchers who described the human sexual response cycle.

William James

Co-creator of the James-Lange theory of emotion, suggesting emotions result from physiological arousal.

Stanley Schachter

Co-developer of the two-factor theory of emotion, emphasizing cognition in emotional experiences.

Hans Selye

Identified the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) as the body's response to stress.

Motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Instinct

A complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species.

Drive-reduction theory

The idea that a physiological need creates a drive that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of a balanced or constant internal state.

Incentive

A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

Yerkes-Dodson law

The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.

Hierarchy of needs

Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, starting with physiological needs and culminating in self-actualization.

Glucose

A sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues.

Set point

The point at which an individual’s 'weight thermostat' is supposedly set.

Basal metabolic rate

The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.

Sexual response cycle

Masters and Johnson’s four-stage model of sexual arousal: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Refractory period

A resting period after orgasm during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.

Sexual dysfunction

A problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.

Estrogens

Sex hormones that contribute to female sexual characteristics and peak during ovulation.

Testosterone

The most important male sex hormone, stimulating the development of male sex characteristics.

Emotion

A response of the whole organism involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience.

James-Lange theory

The theory that emotions arise from awareness of physiological responses to stimuli.

Cannon-Bard theory

The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the experience of emotion.

Two-factor theory

Schachter and Singer's theory that emotion is based on physical arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal.

Polygraph

A machine used to detect lies by measuring physiological responses.

Facial feedback effect

The tendency of facial expressions to trigger corresponding emotions.

Health psychology

A subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine.

Stress

The process of perceiving and responding to events deemed challenging or threatening.

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Tend and befriend response

Under stress, people (especially women) may seek and give support.

Psychophysiological illness

Stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension or headaches.

Psychoneuroimmunology

The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes affect the immune system and health.

Lymphocytes

White blood cells of the immune system; B lymphocytes fight bacteria, and T lymphocytes attack viruses and cancer cells.

Coronary heart disease

The clogging of heart vessels, often linked to stress and poor health behaviors.

Type A

Competitive, hard-driving, impatient, and aggressive personality type linked to heart disease.

Type B

Easygoing and relaxed personality type.