HOSA Behavioral Health 2026

behavioral neuroscience

the study of connections between the nervous system and behavioral/mental processes

Central Nervous System (CNS) key parts

Brain and Spinal cord (continuous tissue; spinal cord is brain’s “tail”

Spinal cord

Information conduit with sensory information and muscle commands

Motor, sensory, and interneurons

move, feel, and neither; bridge between motor and sensory

Brainstem

Part of brain with midbrain, pons, & medulla

Medulla

Brainstem structure just above spinal cord; nerve fibers. Manages heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.

Pons

Brainstem part between medulla and midbrain; bridge between higher and lower and connects cerebellum to the brain

Cerebellum

Attached to brainstem; handles balance, motor coordination, and cognitive processing

Midbrain

Brainstem structure above pons (below cerebral hemispheres); handles sensory reflexes, movement, pain, and contains endorphin receptors

Reticular Formation

Structures along brainstem midline; handle mood, arousal, and sleep

Thalamus

Subcortical structure involved with processing sensory information, states of arousal, and learning + memory (you have 2! one on either side)

Subcortical Structures

Structures below cerebral cortex

Basal Ganglia

Collection of subcortical structures that help control voluntary movement. It’s circuits are located in the brainstem, thalamus, and cerebral cortex.

Disease associated with degeneration of the basal ganglia

Parkinson’s (voluntary movement issues)

Basal ganglia also contributes to the following psych disorders

OCD, ADHD (characterized by inadequate control of voluntary movement)

Hypothalamus

Subcortical structure that participates in regulation of thirst, temperature, hunger, s3xual behavior, and aggression. Contributes to “4F”: feeding, fleeing, fighting, fornic@tion

Hippocampus

Subcortical structure that participates in memory. Does not directly store memories but is involved in storage and retrieval of memories. Damage impairs ability to form new memories (but not intelligence, personality, or most past memories).

Cingulate cortex

Subcortical structure above the corpus callosum. Anterior segment (ACC) participates in decision making and emotion. Posterior segment (PCC) participates in memory and visual processing.

Amygdala

Subcortical structure located in the temporal lobe believed to participate in emotional processing. Best known for identifying, remembering, and responding to fear and aggression.

Nucleus accumbens

Subcortical structure that participates in reward, pleasure, and addiction. Also tied to social inclusion and connectivity (more included = more active NA when given stimuli).

Corpus callosum

A wide band of nerve fibers, connecting the right and left cerebral hemispheres

Cerebral cortex

The thin layer of neurons covering the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres (convoluted/crinkled to fit; those are the wiggly lines on the brain)

Location of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex

Frontal lobe is at the front of the brain directly behind the frontal lobe is the parietal lobe at the back of the brain is the occipital lobe and curving around the side of each hemisphere is the temporal lobe (under the others)

Frontal lobe

The largest of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex; location of the primary motor cortex and areas responsible for some of the most complex cognitive processes. Broca’s area: net to primary motor cortex; does speech production.

Parietal lobe

The lobe of the cerebral cortex that lies at the top of the brain between the frontal and the occipital lobes; location of the primary somatosensory cortex. PSC helps us localize touch, pain, skin temperature, and body position. Lobe also processes input about taste and engages in some complex processing of vision (e.g., how quickly something is moving towards us).

Occipital lobe

The lobe of the cerebral cortex located at the back of the brain; location of the primary visual cortex. PVC begins the process of interpreting input from the eyes by responding to basic information about an image (eg. borders, shading, color, and movement) but it connects to other lobes via pathways to facilitate full recognition.

Temporal lobe

The lobe of the cerebral cortex that curves around the side of each hemisphere; location of the primary auditory cortex. PAC allows people to process incoming sounds. The temporal lobe also processes some higher visual system tasks, such as object recognition and familiar faces.

Prefrontal cortex

Involved with the planning of behavior, attention, and judgment. Abnormalities may account for characteristics of psychological disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, ADHD)

Orbitofrontal cortex

A part of the prefrontal cortex located right behind the eyes that participates in impulse control; has lots of affect on social behavior and experience of emotion.

PNS functional divisions

The Somatic Nervous System and the Autonomic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that brings sensory information to the central nervous system and transmits commands to the muscles. Commands for voluntary movement are transmitted from the CNS to the muscles and sensory input is brought back to the CNS for further processing. Functions are carried out by spinal nerves and cranial nerves.

The autonomic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system that directs the activity of glands, organs, and smooth muscles. “Cruise control of the body” because it ensures that the heart keeps beating and the lungs continue to inhale and exhale without conscious direction. Contains three subdivisions: the sympathetic, the parasympathetic, and the enteric.

The sympathetic nervous system

Prepares the body for situations requiring the expenditure of energy. It is the division of the autonomic nervous system which coordinates arousal (racing hearts, rapid breathing, sweaty palms, pale faces). pre-fight-or-flight preparation

The parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system associated with rest, repair, and energy storage.

The enteric nervous system

A division of the autonomic nervous system consisting of nerve cells embedded in the lining of the gastrointestinal system. Often called a “second brain“ because it contains as many nerve cells as I found in the spinal cord. Communicates with the endocrine system to ensure essential chemical release for digestion. Conscious functions include gastrointestinal pain, hunger, and fullness.The functions that operate below conscious awareness give rise to the references of a “gut feeling“. Disturbances of the enteric environment may contribute to development of autism spectrum disorder. This system is also the source of 95% of the body serotonin.

The endocrine system

A system responsible for the release of hormones into the bloodstream. It made up of glands that release these hormones. It responds to input from the nervous system specifically the hypothalamus it is especially involved with arousal, metabolism, growth, and sex. Important glands include the pineal gland, the pituitary gland, the thyroid gland, the adrenal glands, the islets of Lagerhans and the ovaries in females and testes in males.

The pineal gland

Release the chemical messenger melatonin and is important in the maintenance of our sleep wake cycles.

The pituitary gland

Often called the body’s master gland because many of the hormones it releases activate other glands. It is regulated by the hypothalamus and its hormones form two groups, one which is released directly from the pituitary the other that has hormones that influence the releases of hormones by other glands. Examples of pituitary hormones are oxytocin, vasopressin, and human growth hormone.

The thyroid gland

Raises or lowers metabolism or the chemical processes, your body needs to sustain life in response to pituitary hormones. Levels of thyroid can mimic symptoms of depression.

Adrenal glands

Located just above the kidneys in the lower back and activated by pituitary hormones in times of stress these adrenal glands, then release other hormones, including cortisol that travel throughout the body and the brain to provide a general “wake up” message.

neuron

A cell of the nervous system that specialized to send and receive neural messages

Cell body

The large, central mass of a neuron, containing the nucleus

Axon

The branch of a neuron that is usually responsible for transmitting information to other neurons

Dendrite

A branch from the neural cell body that usually receives input from other neurons

glia

Nervous system cells that perform a variety of support functions, including formation of blood-brain barrier and myelin. Some provide a structural matrix for neuron to stay in place. Others are mobile, allowing them to move to a location where neurons have been damaged to clean up debris.

Myelin

The insulating material covering some axons

action potential

The electrical signal arising in a neurons axon

Synapse

A point of communication between two neurons

neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger that communicates across a synapse

Receptor

A special channel in the membrane of a neuron that interacts with neurotransmitters released by other neurons

Reuptake

A process in which molecules of neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap are returned to the axon terminal from which they were released

Dopamine

involved in reward, movement, and motivation; low levels linked to Parkinson's and depression, dysregulation linked to schizophrenia

Serotonin

regulates mood, sleep, appetite; low levels linked to depression and anxiety

Norepinephrine

involved in alertness and arousal; plays a role in stress response and mood disorders

GABA

main inhibitory neurotransmitter; low levels linked to anxiety disorders

Acetylcholine

involved in muscle movement and memory; linked to Alzheimer's

abnormal psychology

the study of psychological disorders

comorbid

two or more disorders in the same individual

psychological disorder

mental health experts definition: “a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or development processes underlying mental function”

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

Reference manual published by APA in 1952 used to promote consistency in diagnosis of psychological disorders by mental health professionals; has supporters as well as many critics

autism spectrum disorders (ASD)

A disorder characterized by deficits in social relatedness and communication skills that are often accompanied by repetitive, ritualistic behavior (accompanied by abnormalities in serotonin, GABA, glutamate)

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A disorder characterized by either unusual inattentiveness, hyperactivity with impulsivity, or both

schizophrenia

A disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thought and speech, disorders of movement, restricted affect, and avolition (severe lack of motivation) or asociality (lack of motivation to engage in social activity)

delusion

schizophrenia symptom; a false, illogical belief

hallucination

schizophrenia symptom; a false perception

bipolar disorder

a mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression

mania

period featured in bipolar disorder; period of unrealistically elevated mood

major depressive disorder (MDD)

a disorder characterized by lengthy periods of depressed mood, loss of pleasure in normal activities, disturbances in sleep and appetite, difficulty concentrating, feelings of hopelessness, and possible thoughts of suicide

learned helplessness

a state in which experiencing random or uncontrolled consequences leads to feelings of hopelessness and possibly depression

diathesis-stress model

a model that suggests that the experience of stress interacts with an individual’s biological disorder/predisposition

anxiety disorder

a disorder featuring anxiety that is not proportional to a person’s circumstances

specific phobia

fears of objects other than those associated with agoraphobia or social anxiety disorder

symptoms of bipolar disorder

elevated mood, grandiosity, little need for sleep, rapid speech, difficulty concentrating, possible depression

possible casual factors under investigation for schizophrenia

genetics, reduced frontal lobe activity, disruption of brain development, dopamine and glutamate abnormalities, stress, prenatal environment, marijuana use. (state)

possible casual factors under investigation for bipolar disorder

genetics, serotonin disturbances, diet. (state)

possible casual factors under investigation for major depressive disorder

loss of positive reinforcement, learned helplessness, negative cognitions, rumination, depressive attributions, stress, genetics, reduced serotonin activity, patterns of brain activity, circadian rhythms. (state)

social anxiety disorder

a disorder characterized by an unrealistic fear of being scrutinized and criticized by others

panic attack

the experience of intense fear and autonomic arousal (involuntary sympathetic nervous system response) in the absence of real threat

panic disorder

a disorder characterized by repeated panic attacks and fear of future attacks

agoraphobia

unrealistic fear of open spaces, being outside the home alone, or being in a crowd

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

a disorder characterized by excessive anxiety and worry that not correlated with particular objects or situations

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

a disorder associated with intrusive obsessions and compulsions

obsession

an intrusive, distressing thought

compulsion

repetitive, ritualistic behavior associated with high anxiety

body dysmorphic disorder

a disorder characterized by the unrealistic perception of physical flaws

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

a disorder caused by the experience of trauma, which leads to flashbacks, dreams, hypervigilance, and avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event

dissociative disorder

a disorder characterized by disruption in a person’s identity, memory, or consciousness

somatic symptom disorder

a disorder characterized by physical symptoms that do not have an underlying medical cause

antisocial personality disorder

a disorder characterized by an unusual lack of remorse, empathy, or regard for normal social rules and conventions

borderline personality disorder (BPD)

a disorder characterized by instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotion

narcissistic personality disorder

a disorder characterized by grandiosity, need for admiration, and low empathy

Dissociative identity disorder (DID)

most well known dissociative disorder; presence of two or more distinct personality states

Dissociative amnesia

inability to recall important personal information, usually trauma-related

Anorexia nervosa

restriction of food intake, intense fear of gaining weight

Bulimia nervosa

cycles of binge eating followed by purging

Binge eating disorder

recurrent episodes of eating large amounts without purging

Personality disorder

a category of disorders characterized by enduring, inflexible patterns of inner experience and behavior that deviate markedly from cultural expectations and cause significant distress or impairment in functioning

Bipolar I

full manic episodes that may require hospitalization; depressive episodes may or may not occur

Bipolar II

hypomanic episodes (less severe than full mania) plus at least one major depressive episode; never a full manic episode

psychotherapy

A treatment designed to improve symptoms of a psychological disorder through conversation between the therapist and the patient or client