Midterm Study Guide (Units 0-3)

Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytic

A historical perspective used by Freud to explain the unconscious on behavior.

Behaviorism

The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

Humanistic psychology

A historically significant perspective emphasizing the growth potential of healthy people and individual personal growth.

Cognitive Psychology

The perspective that focuses on brain functioning including perception, thinking, memory, and language.

Biological (Neuroscience)

Perspective which focuses on how brain chemistry, genes, and hormones impact behavior.

Social-cultural

Perspective which focuses on the impacts of our cultural, family, friends, and society.

Evolutionary Psychology

Perspective which focuses on the impacts of our ancestors on behavior.

Confidentiality

Personal information about subjects is to never be shared.

Informed Consent

Subjects must give written consent to participate in an experiment.

Case Study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group.

Population

All the cases in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Representative Sample

A subset of the population carefully chosen to represent the proportionate diversity of the population as a whole.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate the situation.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates factors to observe effects on behavior or mental processes.

Operational Definition

Specifically names the operations that the experimenter must use to control or measure variables in an experiment.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences.

Double-blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both participants and staff are ignorant about treatment assignment.

Placebo

A pseudo treatment, often a pill with no drug in it.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone.

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment.

Independent Variable (IV)

The experimental factor that is manipulated and tested.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The experimental factor that is being measured.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the IV that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Median

The measure of central tendency that is the middle score in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve describing data distribution.

Statistical Significance

A statement of how likely an obtained result occurred by chance.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots representing values of two variables.

Twin Biology

Study the effects of heredity and environment using identical and fraternal twins.

Separated Twins Similarities

Similarities noted in personality, intelligence, interests, etc., between separated twins.

Nature vs Nurture

The debate concerning the relative influences of genetics and environment on behavior.

Neuron

The nerve cell that is the main medium for communication in the body.

Dendrites

Branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.

Axon

A long single extension of a neuron covered with myelin sheath.

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential.

All-or-None Response

A neuron's firing action that occurs fully or not at all.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released from the sending neuron that influence the receiving neuron.

Reuptake

The process of neurotransmitters being reabsorbed into the sending neuron.

Agonist

A chemical that mimics or excites a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A chemical that inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that help manage pain and perceive pleasure.

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter involved in muscle action, memory, and learning.

Dopamine

Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion; imbalance relates to disorders.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter affecting mood, hunger, and sleep.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Connects the CNS to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the PNS that controls skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls glands and other muscles automatically.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Arouses the body in stressful situations, preparing for fight or flight.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body and conserves energy after a threat.

Endocrine System

The body's chemical communication system using hormones.

Hormones

Chemicals released by glands into the bloodstream that affect various functions.

Medulla

Base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard directing messages to appropriate areas.

Cerebellum

Coordinates voluntary movements and balance.

Limbic System

A system associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

Neural clusters linked to the emotions of fear and anger.

Hippocampus

Responsible for the formation of new explicit memories.

Hypothalamus

Directs maintenance activities such as eating and drinking, and governs the endocrine system.

Frontal Lobe

Involved in reasoning, planning, and motor function.

Temporal Lobe

Involved in auditory perception and memory.

Occipital Lobe

Concerned with visual processing.

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory input related to touch and body position.

Aphasia

An impairment of language.

Broca’s Area

Controls the physical act of speaking.

Wernicke’s Area

Controls language comprehension.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to modify itself after an injury.

Psychoactive drugs

Chemicals that change how you think and feel.

Depressants

Drugs that slow and calm neural activity.

Stimulants

Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images.

Consciousness

Awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Circadian rhythm

Biological clock regulating bodily functions on a 24-hour cycle.

NREM sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep, encompassing all sleep stages except REM.

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep where vivid dreams occur.

Insomnia

Recurring problems falling or staying asleep.

Dream

A sequence of images and emotions occurring in a sleeping person's mind.

Sensation

Process where our sensory receptors and nervous system receive stimuli.

Bottom-up processing

Processing that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain.

Top-down processing

Processing guided by higher mental processes.

Absolute threshold

Minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Signal detection theory

Predicts how and when we detect a faint stimulus amid background noise.

Difference threshold

Minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection.

Sensory adaptation

Diminished sensitivity due to constant stimulation.

Pupil

Adjustable opening in the center of the eye that controls light entry.

Accommodation

Change in lens shape to focus images on the retina.

Retina

Light-sensitive surface containing rods and cones.

Rods

Retinal receptors detecting black, white, and gray, sensitive to movement.

Cones

Retinal receptors for color and fine detail, functional in well-lit conditions.

Trichromatic theory

Theory stating retina has three color receptors sensitive to red, green, and blue.

Opponent-process theory

Theory which suggests color vision is enabled by opposing retinal processes.

Cochlea

Fluid-filled tube in the inner ear that triggers nerve impulses by sound waves.

Place theory

Links pitch we hear with the cochlea's stimulated membrane location.

Frequency theory

The rate of nerve impulses matches tone frequency enabling pitch perception.