A&P Final

Cardiovascular system feedback loop

when in flight or fight mode, the SNS increases blood flow to the muscles while decreasing blood to digestive organs, the PNS decreases blood to muscles and increases digestion at rest (negative feedback loop)

blood and immune system feedback loop

(blood clotting) when blood vessels are damaged, a cascading effect causes increased blood flow of platelets to the injury until the blood clots (pos)

Urinary feedback loop

(osmoregularity) when there is a high concentration of salt in blood, ADH is released from the pituitary gland, causing water retention, which decreases salt concentration (neg)

digestive system feedback loop

(peristalsis) when there is an increases distension of digestive organs, smooth muscle contractions push down food + decrease distension (neg)

endocrine feedback loop

(calcium) PTH is released in response to low blood calcium levels, calcitonin released in response to high blood calcium levels

reproductive system

(testosterone production) when testosterone levels rise, it triggers the brain to decrease LH production, which decreases testosterone release

development feedback loop

(labor) when baby pushes on mother’s cervix, oxytocin is released from the brain, further causing contractions which push the baby’s head against the cervix more, repeating until infant is delivered

what is the function of the cardiovascular system

to transport nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, etc throughout the body

path of blood through the body

artery, arteriole, capillary, venule, vein

artery characteristics

thick outer wall, small lumen, thick media

capillary characteristics

small lumen, thin wall

vein characteristics

thin outer wall, large lumen, thin media

pathway of blood

SVC/IVC → right atrium → tricuspic valve → right ventricle → pulmonary valve —> pulmonary artery → pulmonary veins → left atrium → bicuspid valve → left ventricle → aoeric valve → aorta

what chambers and major blood vessels carry oxygenated blood?

left atrium, left ventricle, pulmonary veins, aorta

What is another term for the sinotrial node and what is its purpose?

pacemaker; It generates the electrical signal which initiates the contraction of the heart

pulmonary circulation

to and from the lungs; oxygenated blood gets oxygen

systemic circulation

to and from the heart (body)l oxygen delivered to body cells and CO2 is taken to heart

hypertension

high blood pressure; can be caused by atherosclerosis, genetics, increased salt consumption, medications, symptoms include headahces

myocardial infarction (heart attack)

blockage of blood flow to heart muscle

shortness of breath, chest pain, fatigue, dizziness

heart failure

heart doesn’t pump as well as it should can be caused by damage, CAD, high BP, heart attack, CHD, etc

how do the nervous system and cardiovascular system work together

the nervous system reduced blood pressure when the body is at rests and triggers vasodilation in muscles during exercise

Erythroblastosis Fetalis

when the Rh- mother is pregnant with Rh+ baby, first pregnancy has issues, then the subsequent pregnancies, the mother’s immune system attacks the fetal RBCs

helper t

direct (help) the immune response

memory B

remember information about pathogens for following exposure

phagocytes

“eat” / destroy pathogens

plasma b

make antibodes

tonsils

trap + destroy pathogens that enter through mouth and throat

peyer’s patches

trap + destroy pathogens in the small intenstine

spleen

filters blood, removes old RBCs, Acts as blood reservoir

thymus

produces T cells to aid in the immune response

lymph

transports fats, carries immune cells, helps maintain fluid balance

non-specific body defences

skin, macrophages, fever, mucus, inflammatory response, tears

naturally acquired active immunity

infected with a pathogen (sick)

naturally acquired passive immunity

antibodies passed from mother to baby (placenta or breast milk)

artificially acquired active immunity

given dead/weakened pathogen (vaccine)

artificially acquired passive immunity

antibodies injected (immune serum injection)

multiple sclerosis

destroys myelin sheath of nerve cells

type I diabetes

destroys insulin-producing cells of the pancreas; insufficient insulin production

rheumatoid arthritis

destroys cartilage in joints; results in rigidity and pain

systemic lupus

immune system attacks tissues throughout body

urinary incontinence

failure or hold urine, more common in women

Explain possible immune system problems associated with transplants.

rejection of transplanted organs due to foreign antigens; immunosuppressants can be given to lower risk

urinary retention

failure to fully empty bladder (more common in men)

bowman’s capsule

substances filtered from glomerulus to this

glomerulus

filtration; proteins stay in blood

water, salts, sugar, amino acids, and wastes filtered into nephron

PCT

reabsorption; sugar, amino acids, salt, and water are brought back into blood

loop of henle

reabsorption water and salt is brought back into bloodstream

DCT

reabsorption; active transport to pump out last water due to ADh

collecting duct

excretion; urine collected and sent to pelvis of kidney

glycosuria

glucose in urine

causes: diabetes, kidney damage

proteinuria

proteins in urinel; hypertension, pregnancy

pyuria

pus in urine; UTI

dysuria

difficulty with urination; UTI, STI, kidney stones

villi + microvilli

increase surface tension

main digestive organ

small intensine as most digestion and absorption happens here

proteins

building blocks: amino acids

digestive enzymes: pepsin, protease, HCL

fats

building blocks: fatty acids + glycerol

digestive enzymes: lipase, bile

carbohydrates (polysaccharides0

buildings blocks: simple sugars

digestive enzymes: pancreatic amylase, salivary amylase

Crohn’s disease

autoimmune condition where the immune system attacks GI tract, no cure

celiac disease

immune system destroys GI lining when gluten is consumed

hypothyroidism

underperforming thyroid, which affects metabolism

diabetes

lack of insulin or response to insulin, leading to uncontrolled blood sugar levels

symptoms of type II diabetes

increased thirst, frequent urination, increased hunger, fatigue, slow hearing sores, frequent infections, nausea, constipation, nerve damage, incontinence, kidney problems

exocrine

substances released by glands through ducts

endocrine

released by ducts into bloodstream (ductless)

function of the endocrine system

regulate various body processes through the release of hormones as chemical signals in order to maintain homeostasis

what hormones does the anterior pituitary gland release?

FSH, LH, GH

growth hormone

targets bones + muscles for growth

disorders: acromegaly, pituitary dwarfism, giganticism

FSH

stimulates development of gametes

LH

stimulates ovulation and testosterone production

insulin

decreases blood sugar

diabetes mellitus

glucagon

increases blood sugae

parathyroid

increases blood calcium

T3 and T4

regulates metabolism

Calcitonin

decreases blood calcium

spermatogenesis

production of sperml meiosis results in 4 sperm cells; begins and puberty and begins all throughout life

oogenesis

production of ova, meiosis results in 1 egg; born with all eggs

menopause

when ovaries slow down + stop producing hormones; menstruation stops; fertility ends

gonorrhea

caused by bacterial burning sensation during urination; can cause infertility

chlamydia

caused by bacteria; symptoms can be mild or absent, can occur silently in females

HIV

caused by virus which attacks helper-T cells; no cure; fatal if untreated

Syphilis

caused by bacterial fatal if left untreated; occurs in stages; late stage can cause blindness

ectoderm

CNS, skin

mesoderm

heart, muscles, kidneys, bones

endoderm

liver, pancreas, alveoli of lungs, villi, stomach