Army Equipment and tactics

Roman - What do Roman armies do after advancing close enough?

They throw their spears (pilum) at the enemy

Roman - How does throwing spears at the start of the battle help them?

• This removes the strongest warriors earlier on

• Ops could trip over the bodies.

Roman - What is the disadvantage of throwing spears at the start ?

• It may waste spears if they dont injure/kill anyone

• They also have to come close enough, leaving them vulnerable for attack

Roman - What formation do they fight in?

Close quarters with a loose formation - near eachother but not strict formation like a phalanx

Roman - What was it important for soldiers to do in a loose formation?

Each soldier needed to defend themselves at all angles as they wouldn’t only be engaging with enemy frontally

Roman - What is the advantage of fighting in a loose formation?

• More movement and means they don’t have to rely on one person

• Scrutum deflected attacks due to it’s curved nature and gave protection from a range of angles

Roman - How did the testudo formation work?

• Shields would be locked together to form a wall against projectiles

• Formation could move towards the enmy to fight close quarters

• Shields could even be used to build a ramp, helping soldiers to climb ontop of an enemy wall

Roman - What are the disadvantages of a testudo formation?

• Could only fight close quarters - dangerous

• Sides also vulnerable without shields

Roman - When was siege warfare used?

When sometimes enemy defended by high walls, making traditional infantry battle impossible

Greek - What material was the tunic?

Cloth

Greek - What was a tunic used for?

Protected from chaffing against his cuirass

Greek - What material was the cuirass (breastplate) made of?

Solid bronze or several layers of linen glued together, with bronze on the top for added defense

Greek - What was the cuirass used for?

Protected the chest from attack

Greek - What are the downsides of using the cuirass?

• Ended at waist, leaving groin + thighs exposed - common place for hoplite to be wounded

• Cuirass was a single piece and so not very flexible, not a problem in phalanx formation but free movement harder outside the phalanx

• Solid bronze cuirass heavy, potentially exhausting for hoplite

Greek - What is the problem with getting hurt in the thighs?

There are major nerve endings - if wounded here, hoplite would likely bleed to death very quickly

Greek - What are greaves (shin armour) made of

Bronze - strong material

Greek - What were greaves used for?

• Protected shins from enemy projectles

• Hoplon (shield) only covered torso,so provided legs some protection when advancing towards enemy

Greek - What are the downsides of using greaves?

Thighs were left unprotected

Greek - What are boots/sandals made of

Leather

Greek - What were boots/sandals used for?

• Fields are uneven and covered in sharp stones + battlefields covered with dropped or broken weapons, blood and bodies of fallen warriors

• Solid footwear protects soles of feet from being cut, and provide some grip to help the soldier not fall over

Greek - What were helmets made of

Bronze (sometimes with horse hair plume)

Greek - What were helmets used for?

Protected head from projectiles + blows from handheld weapons

Greek - What type of helmet was most common?

Corinthian style, but other types were also common like pilos

Greek - What was the use of horsehair plumes on a helmet?

Common flourish to intimidate enemy by seeming taller

Greek - What was the hoplon (shield) made of?

Wooden core, bronze top and leather backing

Greek - How was the hoplon used?

• Held to the arm with a leather thong + bronze handgrip

• Used primarily for defence

• In phalanx, soldiers on front row locked their shields together to make a wall, effectively protected them from enemy projectiles

Greek - What could be added to the hoplon?

• Sometimes had a leather curtain at bottom to give some protection for thighs

• Sometimes but not always decorated - monsters popular to intimidate enemy as well as symbols associated with warriors city to motivate them

Greek - How long was their spear?

2.5-3m

Greek - What was the spear made of?

Wood pole, bronze tip + butt

Greek - How was the spear used?

• Primary weapon

• Held out in front of them in phalnx formation - kept enemy infantry + cavalry at a distance

• From a safe distance around 2m, hoplite would stab with their spear

Greek - What were some of the advantages of the butt of a spear?

• Butt gave spear some balance + made it less tiring to wiled

• Could also be used offensively if spear tip was broken

• Butt also helped spear to be stuck in the ground, angled upward in case of cavalry attack

Greek - What was the sword made of?

Iron or bronze

Greek - What was the sword used for?

• Secondary weapon

• Used if spear broke, or if he was fighting out of phalanx for some reason (e.g if phalanx had broken, or if enemy were fleeing and he was chasing them down, might drop long spear)

Greek - What kind of infantry was phalanx formation?

Heavy infantry - so-called as hoplite soldiers equipped with heavy weapons + armour, weighing around 35 kg

Greek - What was the phalanx?

Tight formation, where soldiers fought shoulder-to-shoulder with comrades

Greek - Why was the tight formation important?

Physical closeness important as hoplite’s shield protected both him and right flank of the soldier next to him

Greek - Why and how did soldiers march in unison?

• Why - To keep strict organization of phalanx

• How - Flautist played music to dictate rhythm of march

Greek - How was attack over the first line of spears prevented?

First 2 rows of soldiers pointed their spears forward and the back 2 rows pointed at 45°

Greek - Why were soldiers towards the back of the formation important?

• They would step forward when comrade fell, ensuring that the shield formation remained unbroken

• Also pushed their comrades at the point to strengthen their formation

Greek - What were the weaknesses of the phalanx?

• Lacked mobility + manoueverability since it was tightly packed

• Sides and back of phalanx weren’t well defended as forest of spears + shield wall were both aimed to the front - overcome by flanks being defended by cavalry or light/minor troops in battle

Greek - What was the most serious threat to a phalanx?

Another phalanx - when both meet, battle is decided by skill + experience of hoplites, and number of soldiers in the rear