Animal Behaviour

What is evolution in biological terms?

Biological evolution refers to biological change through time.

What are the three conditions necessary for natural selection?

1) Genetic variation, 2) Heredity, 3) Differential reproduction.

Define 'fitness' in the context of evolution.

Fitness is the success of an individual in passing on heritable traits to the next generation.

What is the difference between proximate and ultimate questions?

Proximate questions focus on the causal mechanisms of behavior, while ultimate questions address the evolutionary reasons for that behavior.

What are Tinbergen's 4 Questions in animal behavior research?

1) What is the function? 2) What causes the behavior? 3) How does this behavior develop? 4) What is its evolutionary history?

What is natural selection?

Natural selection is the process of differential survival and reproduction of alternative genetic variants within a population.

How do adaptations relate to survival and reproduction?

Adaptations are traits associated with successful survival and reproduction that can be acted upon by selection.

What is the key to understanding the level of selection in natural selection theory?

The individual is the key to understanding the level of selection.

What does the term 'group selection' refer to?

Group selection refers to the differential reproduction of groups, often associated with altruistic behaviors that benefit the group at a cost to the individual.

What is a scientific theory?

A scientific theory is a synthesis of well-tested and verified hypotheses about some aspect of the world, which must be refutable.

What is the difference between a hypothesis and a prediction?

A hypothesis is a potential explanation for observed events, while a prediction is what we might find if the hypothesis is correct.

What is the role of alternative hypotheses in scientific research?

Alternative hypotheses provide other potential explanations for observed behaviors and are essential for rigorous testing.

What is the significance of the Cape ground squirrels case study?

The case study explores various hypotheses regarding the behavior of Cape ground squirrels, including sexual outlet and energy reallocation.

What is the infanticide hypothesis in relation to Hanuman langurs?

The infanticide hypothesis suggests that male langurs kill unrelated infants to prompt females to resume ovulating, thus creating new mating opportunities.

Who are the founders of ethology?

The founders of ethology are Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, and Niko Tinbergen.

What is the relationship between traits and reproductive success?

Traits are characteristics of individuals that can influence their reproductive success, which is measured by the number of offspring produced.

What does it mean when we say 'natural selection does not equal evolution'?

Natural selection is one mechanism for evolutionary change, but evolutionary change occurs at the population level, not in individuals.

What are genotypes and phenotypes?

Genotypes are the set of alleles underlying the development of individual traits, while phenotypes are the observable traits that arise from gene-environment interactions.

What is the concept of 'cost-benefit approach' in generating hypotheses?

The cost-benefit approach evaluates the negative and positive effects of traits on survival and reproduction to test hypotheses about their adaptive value.

What is anthropomorphism, and why should it be avoided in animal behavior studies?

Anthropomorphism is attributing human traits to animals, which can lead to misinterpretation of animal behavior.

What is the significance of the statement 'natural selection always acts to improve a species' chances of survival'?

This statement highlights that natural selection operates on individuals, selecting traits that enhance reproductive success, regardless of their impact on the species.

What does the term 'altruism' mean in the context of group selection?

Altruism refers to behavior that benefits another individual at a cost to the actor, often discussed in the context of group selection.

What does the term 'just-so stories' refer to in evolutionary biology?

Just-so stories are speculative explanations for traits that lack empirical evidence and can oversimplify complex evolutionary processes.

What are the two levels of analysis in the study of animal behavior?

Proximate and Ultimate levels.

What does the proximate level of analysis focus on?

It focuses on the mechanisms and development that influence behavior.

What does the ultimate level of analysis examine?

It examines the evolutionary history and adaptive function of behavior.

What are Tinbergen's 4 Questions related to animal behavior?

Development, Mechanism (Causation), Evolutionary History, and Adaptive Function.

How do genetic-developmental mechanisms influence behavior?

They affect the assembly of an animal and its internal components.

What is the adaptive function of a behavioral trait?

It refers to the trait's value in terms of survival and reproductive success.

What is an example of a developmental question in animal behavior?

Effects of heredity on behavior and gene-environment interactions.

What is an example of an adaptive function question?

The past and current usefulness of a behavior in terms of fitness.

What is the significance of the study of mobbing behavior in gulls?

It illustrates the costs and benefits of collective behavior in predator distraction.

What hypothesis did Kruuk propose regarding mobbing behavior?

The predator distraction hypothesis, suggesting that mobbing increases prey finding time for predators.

What is the difference between mensurative and manipulative experiments?

Mensurative experiments involve measurements without intervention, while manipulative experiments involve altering conditions to observe effects.

What is the purpose of the comparative approach in studying behavior?

To compare behaviors across different species to understand evolutionary relationships.

What are the two hypotheses regarding the origin of cliff-nesting behavior in gulls?

A) Evolved more recently, B) Evolved with a distant ancestor but lost in today's ground-nesting birds.

What does the term 'phylogenetics' refer to in the context of animal behavior?

It refers to how behavior has been influenced by past and current fitness.

What is the role of hormonal mechanisms in animal behavior?

They control what an animal can do behaviorally during its lifetime.

How does behavior affect survival and reproductive success?

Behaviors that enhance survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on to future generations.

What is the significance of understanding the mechanism behind a behavior?

It helps to identify what causes the behavior to be elicited.

What is the relationship between behavior and gene-environment interactions?

Gene-environment interactions can significantly influence the development of behavioral traits.

Why is it important to consider both proximate and ultimate explanations for behavior?

Both levels provide a comprehensive understanding of why a behavior occurs.

What is the importance of observational approaches in studying animal behavior?

They allow researchers to record and analyze natural behaviors without interference.

What is the role of experimental approaches in behavior studies?

They manipulate variables to establish causal relationships between behavior and environmental factors.

What is the concept of 'Occam's razor' in behavioral studies?

It suggests choosing the simplest explanation that accounts for the observed phenomena.

How does mobbing behavior provide a probable fitness benefit?

By distracting predators, it increases the chances of survival for the mobbing birds' offspring.

What is the significance of studying the evolutionary history of behaviors?

It helps to understand how behaviors have adapted over time through natural selection.

What is the relationship between behavior and fitness?

Behaviors that enhance an individual's fitness are more likely to be favored by natural selection.

What is the focus of Chapter 2 in the integrative study?

Exploring proximate and ultimate hypotheses related to song learning in birds.

What does 'integrative' mean in the context of research?

It can include interdisciplinary research, combining new technologies and research foci for new insights.

What is the significance of the case study on white-crowned sparrows?

It illustrates how various studies come together to understand how and why birds learn to sing.

What happens to the waveform of a bird's song when its height increases?

The intensity of the song becomes higher.

What is the relationship between song dialects and white-crowned sparrows?

Three dialects were found in populations around San Francisco Bay, showing variation in song across space and time.

What is Hypothesis 1 regarding song dialect differences?

It suggests genetic differences in populations, supported at a broad scale but not at a local scale.

What does Hypothesis 2 propose about song learning in birds?

It suggests that differences are due to the acoustic learning environment and the presence of tutors.

What was the outcome of the isolation experiment on white-crowned sparrows?

Young birds raised without tutors did not learn proper songs.

What does Hypothesis 3 suggest about social interaction in song learning?

It proposes that exposure to songs of other species during the learning period can influence song development.

What is the 'sensitive period' in song learning for young songbirds?

It is the period from approximately 10 to 50 days old when they can learn songs from their species.

How did urbanization affect song dialects in white-crowned sparrows?

Urban males adapted their songs to higher amplitudes to cope with increased noise.

What are Tinbergen's four questions in the context of behavior?

They include questions about development, mechanism, evolutionary history, and adaptive function of behaviors.

What role does the ZENK gene play in song production?

It is involved in the biochemical changes in the brain that affect song learning and production.

What are the major brain components involved in song production?

They include the RA (robust nucleus of the arcopallium), NCM, HVC (high vocal center), and nXIIts.

What prediction is made about the size of the RA in male birds?

If the RA is important for song production, it should be larger in males than in females.

What was observed in the brain size of male vs. female zebra finches?

There are sex differences in the size of the RA, with males having a larger RA.

What impact did COVID-19 have on white-crowned sparrow songs?

Birds changed the amplitude and frequency of their songs during the travel restrictions.

What is the acoustic stimulus hypothesis?

It posits that song learning is influenced by the acoustic environment and the songs heard from tutors.

What is the social interaction hypothesis?

It suggests that social cues from other species can affect song learning in birds.

What did Baptista & Petrinovich's 1984 study reveal about song learning?

Nestlings learned notes from a heterospecific tutor they could both hear and see, but not from one they only heard.

What is the significance of measuring song variation over time?

It shows how urbanization impacts song dialects and breeding success in species.

What is the ultimate explanation for why birds learn their species' songs?

It enhances reproductive success by enabling birds to sing their own species' songs.

What are the two levels of analysis in understanding behavior?

Proximate Level and Ultimate Level

What does the Proximate Level focus on?

How genetic-developmental mechanisms influence the assembly of an animal and its internal components.

What does the Ultimate Level focus on?

The evolutionary history of a behavioral trait as affected by descent with modification from ancestral species.

What is the Adaptive Function in the context of behavior?

The adaptive value of a behavioral trait as affected by the process of evolution by natural selection.

What is the Environmental Adaptation Hypothesis?

Vocal learning aids acoustic adaptation to local habitat structure.

What is the Recognition Hypothesis?

Vocal learning helps identify neighbors and promotes social cohesion.

What does the Information Sharing Hypothesis propose?

Vocal learning facilitates valuable information sharing, such as with kin.

What is the Sexual Selection Hypothesis?

Learning increases vocal complexity in male-male competition and is favored by females.

What is the Geographic Matching Hypothesis?

Learning increases geographic variation, promoting assortative mating and local adaptation.

What evidence supports the Sexual Selection Hypothesis in song sparrows?

The more song types shared with neighbors, the longer the territory is held.

What role does brain anatomy play in testing hypotheses about song learning?

If ZENK is activated in the same brain regions after singing, it suggests song learning did not evolve independently.

What does the term 'parsimonious' refer to in the context of phylogenies?

The simplest explanation that requires the least number of evolutionary changes.

What is the significance of studying brain structure across different species?

It supports the idea that song learning has a deeper, shared ancestry rather than evolving independently.

What is the Interactive Theory of Development?

Behavioral traits require both genetic and environmental contributions.

How do honey bees demonstrate the Interactive Theory of Development?

Their tasks change with age, influenced by the interplay between genes and environmental factors.

What is the difference in gene activity between young nurse bees and old foragers?

Different genes are turned on at different stages of the bee's life cycle, influencing behavioral phenotypes.

What is the main takeaway from Chapter 2 regarding behavior evolution?

Examining multiple levels of analysis is powerful for understanding why a behavior has evolved.

What are the two main influences on behavior according to Chapter 3?

Genes and the environment.

What does the term 'Nature vs. Nurture' refer to?

The debate over whether behavior is determined by genetics (nature) or environment (nurture).

What is the implication of the phrase 'Environmentally Determined'?

It suggests that behavior is shaped by environmental factors and is immune to natural selection.

What does 'Genetically Determined' imply?

It suggests that behavior is strictly controlled by genetic factors.

What is the significance of the 1991 and 2008 phylogenies in song learning?

They illustrate the evolutionary relationships between vocal learners and non-learners.

How does vocal learning relate to local adaptation in songbirds?

It promotes geographic variation in vocal signals, allowing for assortative mating with locally adapted partners.

What is the role of ZENK in song learning?

ZENK activation in specific brain regions indicates neural responses related to singing behavior.

What are epigenetic modifications?

Changes that alter gene activity without altering the DNA itself.

What is DNA methylation?

The addition of a methyl group at a specific region of the genome where a cytosine nucleotide is next to a guanine nucleotide.

How do histone modifications affect gene expression?

They involve chemical changes to histones, which alter DNA accessibility and impact transcription.

What was the effect of silencing the Dnmt3 gene in honey bees?

Bees with lower Dnmt3 were more likely to become queens, while the control group mostly became workers.

What does the Emlen Funnel measure?

Migratory direction and the onset of migratory restlessness (Zugunruhe).

What was the outcome of the blackcap warbler experiment?

Birds wintering in Great Britain wanted to migrate due west, indicating a genetic basis for migratory routes.