IB Psychology - Paper 1

Bio - Hormones/Cognitive processes

Buchanan and Lovallo (2001)

Bio - Genetics

Caspi Et Al (2002)

Bio - Technology in research/Neurotransmission

Antonova Et Al (2011)

Antonova Et Al (2011): Aim

Test effect of Scopolamine (stress hormone) on Hippocampal activity in the creation of spatial memory

Antonova Et Al (2011): Method

20 male adults, double-blind procedure
Injected with Scopolamine or placebo and were put in fMRI while playing spatial memory testing VR game to navigate an arena to go to a pole, they did the opposite treatment 3-4 weeks later

Antonova Et Al (2011): Results

Scopolamine showed lowered Hippocampus activity

Antonova Et Al (2011): Conclusion

Acetylcholine plays a key role in the encoding of spatial memories in humans, as well as in rats.

Bio - Localization of brain function/Cog - Thinking and Decision Making

Bechara Et Al (1994)

Bechara Et Al (1994): Aim

Study of how much vmPFC damage affects decision-making

Bechara Et Al (1994): Method

Using groups with vmPFC damage and without, the 2 groups had to gamble money on 4 card decks (2 high-prize & risk, 2 low-prize & risk); the groups had to see which was more advantageous

Bechara Et Al (1994): Results

Non-damage group was more strategic and saw the pattern earlier; those with damage failed to see patterns and acted on impulse

Bechara Et Al (1994): Conclusion

Suggests vmPFC contributes to our ability to use system 2 processing; if damaged, you may not be able to think past impulses & consequences

Bio - Neuroplasticity

Draganski Et Al (2004)

Draganski Et Al (2004): Aim

To investigate whether structural changes in the brain would occur in response to practicing a simple juggling routine

Draganski Et Al (2004): Method

Experiment, mixed design, self-selected sample of volunteers with no prior experience of juggling

Draganski Et Al (2004): Results

- No difference in brain structure between both groups before the experiment
- After 3 months of practice, the jugglers had significantly more grey matter int he mid-temporal area of the cortex in both hemispheres. (these areas are known to be responsible for coordination of movement)
- After 6 months, (3 months of non-practice) the differences decreased. However, the jugglers still had more grey matter in these areas than at the first brain scan.

Draganski Et Al (2004): Conclusion

Grey matter grows in the brain in response to environmental demands (learning) and shrinks in the absence of stimulation (lack of practice); showing that there is cause-and-effect relationship between learning and brain structure.

Buchanan and Lovallo (2001): Aim

To explore the effects the release of cortisol (stress hormone) on memories of emotional information

Buchanan and Lovallo (2001): Method

Participants were first screened for psychiatric and neurological conditions and were given 20mg of cortisol or a placebo, shown a range of images, either pleasant (food) or unpleasant (weapons) scenes, participants were then asked to rank the images based on emotional arousal, and the participant's memory of the images were then tested again one week later

Buchanan and Lovallo (2001): Results

Both groups remembered the emotionally arousing images better that then neutral images
· Cortisol group remembered more emotionally arousing images than the control group.
· The strongest effect was found in cued memory - giving the participants a category title in order for them to recall images (i.e. food, sports etc)

Buchanan and Lovallo (2001): Conclusion

Study suggests that the amygdala's interaction with the hypothalamus causing the release of cortisol may result in consolidation of memory

Bio - Pheromones

Cornwell Et Al (2004)

Cornwell Et Al (2004): Aim

See if androstadienone would affect what types of faces females found attractive in men

Cornwell Et Al (2004): Methods

112 women at 12-26 years old in University of St. Andrews in Scotland were shown in a series of faces that ranged in masculinity, ranked faces based on attractiveness and desirability for short/long-term relationships; they also smelled vials that contained live different chemicals, one of these being androstadienone

Cornwell Et Al (2004): Results

There was a correlation (0.37) between females who showed a preference for masculine faces for a long-term relationship and a for a preference for the smell of androstadienone

Cornwell Et Al (2004): Conclusion

Androstadienone is a possible human pheromone and it might signal high quality genes

Cornwell Et Al (2004): Evaluation

Pros: Many participants, researcher triangulation
Cons: Not generalizable, not proven that human can smell pheromones

Caspi Et Al (2002): Aim

Ongoing study of 1037 children of Dunedin, NZ where they analyzed health, well-being, development, etc.

Caspi Et Al (2002): Method

Took every child in Dunedin, followed them for life and studied their genes, blood, successes, failures, etc.

Caspi Et Al (2002): Results

MAOA-L gene holders who were abused likely became antisocial adults; behavior is a product of how genes interact with the environment we live in

Caspi Et Al (2002): Conclusion

MAOA-L gene holders who were abused likely became antisocial adults, behavior is a product of how genes interact with the environment we live in

Bio - Genetic Similarities

Grove Et Al (1990)

Grove Et Al (1990): Aim

Investigate the extent to which anti-social behavior can be attribute to genetics

Grove Et Al (1990): Method

32 sets of identical twins went through interviews, tests, and questionnaires

Grove Et Al (1990): Results

28% of adults and 41% of children inherited anti-social behavior

Grove Et Al (1990): Conclusion

Though genes can influence anti-social behavior, environment is still an influence

Cog - Models of Memory

Peterson and Peterson (MSM), Robbins Et Al (WMM), Klingberg Et Al (WMM, HL)

Multi-Store Model of Memory

Atkinson and Shiffin's 1968 model to explain how memories are formed

Working Memory Model

The information we hold and manipulate in our conscious attention, developed by Baddeley and Hitch

Peterson & Peterson (1959): Aim

To determine the duration of short-term memory

Peterson & Peterson (1959): Method

Participants were given a random trigram to remember, asked to count backwards in 3s from a random number to stop them from rehearsing the information so it would stay in the STS, then they had to remember the trigram

Peterson & Peterson (1959): Results

After about 6 seconds, accuracy was at 50%, but dropped to almost 0% after 18 seconds

Peterson & Peterson (1959): Conclusion

This study supports the claim of the Multi-Store Model that STS has a duration of about 20 seconds

Robbins Et Al (1996): Aim

See if memory recall would be affected by processing different types of interfering information

Robbins Et Al (1996): Method

20 male chess players from Cambridge memorized chess piece spots for 20 seconds, then had to replicate the arrangement (Four Controls)

C1: Had to repeat "The" repeatedly (Phonological Loop)
C2: Press numbers on a keyboard (Visuospatial Sketchpad)
C3: Call a sequence at random with the beat (Central Executive)
C4: No added task (Control)

Robbins Et Al (1996): Results

- Phonological loop had little to no effect (16/25)
- Performed worse in VS and CE (4/25)

Robbins Et Al (1996): Conclusion

There are different slave systems that process different information in the STS

Klingberg Et Al (2005): Aim

Test the effects of computer game training on working memory and attention problems

Klingberg Et Al (2005): Method

42 ADHD kids assigned to either condition: Computer game for improving working memory that got harder (Treatment), same game but no difficulty (Control) for 40 mins a day for 5 days a week; They were tested after 5 weeks of treatment and again after three months

Klingberg Et Al (2005): Results

Results showed that the kids in the treatment group had a significant improvement in their working memory capacity; parents also reported reduced symptoms of inattention & hyperactivity

Klingberg Et Al (2005): Conclusion

This is one example of positive effects of technology on the reliability of cognitive processes, in this case working memory capacity and attention

Cog - Schema

Stone Et Al (2010), Bransford and Johnson (1974)

Stone Et Al (2010): Aim

Investigate effect of schema on sports & race on information comprehension

Stone Et Al (2010): Method

College-aged participants were asked to listen to a basketball game and make judgements; They then were given an image of the player they were listening about (One black, one white) to make judgements

Stone Et Al (2010): Results

Black: More athletic, played better
White: Better intelligence, played with hustle

Stone Et Al (2010): Conclusion

Schema theory shows that activating a particular social schema can influence processing of new information; Stereotypes lead to confirmation bias, further reinforcing the stereotype and may affect behaviors

Bransford & Johnson (1974): Aim

Lab experiment, investigate how schemas help us to store new info in our memory

Bransford & Johnson (1974): Method

Participants are grouped into 3 grand are read a paragraph describing a # of steps to a procedure.
G1 is told the paragraph is about laundry prior to reading.
G2 is told the paragraph is about laundry after reading.
G3 is not told anything.
All are told to recall as many details as possible.

Bransford & Johnson (1974): Results

G1 had the best memory

Bransford & Johnson (1974): Conclusion

Schemas help encode new information to organize and interpret, memory involves actively interpreting what you hear based on existing knowledge

Bransford & Johnson (1974): Ethics

The study is easy to replicate with high reliability, making it well-controlled, but as individual schemas affect how one views surroundings, the paragraph is deliberately ambiguous and has a low sample and generalizability

Cog - Thinking and Decision Making/Cognitive Bias

Strack and Mussweiler (1997)

Strack and Mussweiler (1997): Aim

To test the influence of anchoring bias on decision making

Strack and Mussweiler (1997): Method

60 male and female German university students, half were asked if Gandhi was older or younger than 9 years old when he died, the other half were asked if he was older or younger than 140 years old; Then, they were asked how old they think he was when he died

Strack and Mussweiler (1997): Results

Participants in the high anchor condition had the average guess of 67 years old, lower anchor had 50 years old

Strack and Mussweiler (1997): Conclusion

Study demonstrates the anchoring effect, numerical information given to participants before making a judgement can include cue their later judgements, it also shows it can hav an effect even if the numbers are implausible

Cog - Reconstructive Memory

Loftus and Palmer (1995), Sparrow Et Al (2011)

Loftus & Palmer (1995): Aim

See if false memories of autobiographical events could be made through power of suggestion

Loftus & Palmer (1995): Method

Subjects' relatives were asked to recount 3 childhood memories, including if they've been lost in a mall; Subjects got a questionnaire in the mail asking about 4 memories and write on it as much as possible, and were interviewed 2x in 4 weeks and rated their confidence of their memory from 1-10

Loftus & Palmer (1995): Results

25% participants 'recalled' the false memory as true, but less confident

Loftus & Palmer (1995): Conclusion

This suggests strong evidence for the role of power of suggestion in making false memories

Sparrow Et Al (2011): Aim

See if the use of external storage systems has a negative impact on memory

Sparrow Et Al (2011): Method

Participants were asked to remember 40 trivia items, half were told it would be saved, half were told to remember, half were not told about memory test

Sparrow Et Al (2011): Results

No effect of being told to remember/not, significant effect in saved vs erased conditions, if people thought they could look it up later, they had a worse memory

Sparrow Et Al (2011): Conclusion

The expectation of access to information, such as is experienced with having continual access to internet search engines, has a negative effect on recall; There is no need to encode the information if it possible to just look it up later

Cog - Cognitive Bias

Stone Et Al (2010), Cohen Et Al (1981)

Cohen Et Al (1981): Aim

Lab experiment, seeing how activating stereotypes influences memory

Cohen Et Al (1981): Method

Researchers made videos with actors having dinner for the woman's birthday. Half were told she was a waitress, half were told she was a librarian. The woman had equal amounts recorded what participants recalled

Cohen Et Al (1981): Results

Those who had waitress remembered beer, music, guitar; those who had librarian remembered salad, art, piano

Cohen Et Al (1981): Conclusion

If we have a "Schema activated", we process new info as it relates to existing schema as it's easier to remember

Cohen Et Al (1981): Ethics

Controlled as it takes place in a lab, but lacks ecological validity with the artificial environment; Good generalizability as it's not limited to a group and has a simple method

Cog - Influence of Emotion on other Cognitive processes

Buchanan and Lovallo, Brown and Kulik

Brown and Kulik (1977): Aim

To investigate the determinants of flashbulb memories about assassinations, highly newsworthy events, and personally significant events

Brown and Kulik (1977): Method

A questionnaire was administered to 80 participants (40 African Americans and 40 Caucasian Americans)
Asked recall circumstances where they'd learned of shocking events, 9 based on assassinations or attempts on well-known personalities and the 10th on a self-selected event of personal relevance involving unexpected shock

Brown and Kulik (1977): Results

The researchers found that 90% of the participants recalled a significant amount of detail about the day when these events occurred; 75% of black participants had flashbulb memories of the murder of Martin Luther King, compared to 33% of white participants.

Brown and Kulik (1977): Conclusion

Concluded that FBM is more likely for unexpected, personally relevant events, possibly caused by physiological emotional arousal

Socio - Social Identity Theory/Stereotypes

Park and Rothbart (1982), Stone Et Al (2010)

Park & Rothbart (1982): Aim

Investigate in-group favoritism and out-group homogeneity effects

Park & Rothbart (1982): Method

Members of 3 sororities were asked how they viewed their sorority (and others) on 10 factors on a 9-Point scale (higher #, more sorority thinks they're similar...)

Park & Rothbart (1982): Results

Members ranked their own sorority favorably, others as more homogenic

Park & Rothbart (1982): Conclusion

Being part of a group makes individuals want to boost self-esteem and think their group favorably

Park & Rothbart (1982): Ethics

Low generalizability, field study, not controlled

Socio - Social Cognitive Theory

Bandura Et Al (1961)

Bandura Et Al (1961): Aim

To investigate if aggression is learned through observation and imitation

Bandura Et Al (1961): Method

72 kids in 3 groups (12 boys, 12 girls), model showed (non) agressionn for 10 mins.

G1: Watched either a female/male model behave aggressively to a 'Bobo Doll'

G2: Children watched non-aggressive models who quietly played with a toy set and ignored the Bobo Doll

G3: Control, not exposed to any model

The children were then placed in a room containing (non) aggressive toys for 20 minutes and observed

Bandura Et Al (1961): Results

G1 more agressive (especially if male model), boys were more agressive, girls more verbal

Bandura Et Al (1961): Conclusion

Agression and socila behavior can be learnt by observation, sex roles influence limited behaviors

Socio - Culture/Cultural Dimension

Levine Et Al (1994)

Levine Et Al (1994): Aim

See how helpful people from different cultures/populations are in non-emergency solutions

Levine Et Al (1994): Method

36 U.S. cities measured correlations between population density and behavior, in a field, researchers pretended to drop a pen, postcard, or crossing the street