Civ Final Exam

The Seven Sages

Pittacus of Mytilene, Bias of Priene, Solon of Athens, Cleobulus of Lindos, Periander of Corinth, Chilon of Sparta, Thales of Miletus

Thales of Miletus

-First Greek philosopher

-Mathematician and astronomer

-"All is water"

-626/623-548/543 BCE

-Predicted an eclipse of the sun

-Crossing the River Halys

-Harvested olive crop

-Loved watching the stars

Anaximander of Miletus

-Same town as Thales

-First philosopher whose words are recorded in the original and in prose

-Aristotle believed he proposed 'Apeiron' or 'arche' principle (boundless, indefinite, infinite)

-Moral interpretation: existence itself is an injustice (ethical understanding)

Background on Plato's Euthyphro

-Socrates wrote nothing (most of what we know is through the lens of Plato)

-Plato's philosophy is voiced by Socrates

-Euthyphro means "direct-thinker"

Socrates and the Oracle

-The Oracle of Delphi told Socrates that he was the wisest person in Athens

-Socrates came to the conclusion that nobody knew anything: he was only wiser because he realized his own ignorance

Euthyphro

-Trying to prosecute his father for murder: one of his farm workers murdered a slave so his father tied him, threw him in a ditch, and went to get the authorities (slave died from exposure to the elements)

-Socrates thinks that Euthyphro must know what the nature of piety is

The Central Philosophical Dilemma

"Is the pious loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?"

Meno's definitions of virtue

Can virtue be taught?

-What is virtuous for a man is to conduct himself in the city so that he helps his friends, injures his enemies

-For women, their domain is obedience to their husband and household management

-Children, older folks, and free or enslaved people have their own proper virtue too

or...virtue is the desire for good things and the power to get them?

Meno's problem

-"Enumerated a set without articulating the principle by which its members are included in that set"

-Provided examples of 'x' without specifying the definition of 'x'

-Meno has plenty of opinions, but no knowledge

The Learner's Paradox

"A man cannot search either for what he knows or for what he does not know; He cannot search for what he knows- since he knows it, there is no need to search- nor for what he does not know, for he does not know what to look for."

The Theory of Recollection

-The soul is presumed to be immortal

-Upon our death, our soul is separated from our body

-We are no longer burdened by sensory knowledge: our minds can 'see' purely the objects of cognition

-In this disembodied state, our soul apprehends the pure objective ideas, unchanging, universal, and pure (with the forms we have total enlightenment)

-Just before we are born back into a new body, our soul drinks from the river lethe (means forgetful)

-As newborn babies, we have forgotten everything we've learned

-Our embodied lives onward are a process of 'recollecting' that which we've forgotten

-We recollect the universal form

*There is no teaching, only recollecting*

Innate knowledge

How we can explain intuitive understandings of things like grammatical forms, unexplained dance movements, and any number of end-directed bodily processes without dependence on 'teaching'

The Sophists

-5th century BCE

-A roughly-associated group of thinkers turned away from natural philosophy and toward ethical, political, and social questions

-Professional rhetoricians and teachers paid by wealthy patrons and students

-Instruction was mostly concerned with winning arguments in legal and political matters

(think of as ultra-talented lawyers)

Individual Relativism

-A person is the measure of all things

-A person may judge that the weather is cold, whereas another may believe that the weather is hot

-Both judgements, though contradictory, are not only simultaneously possible, but are correct

-In this case, and in many others, there is no absolute standard of judgement beyond the individual's evaluation

-Propositions are or are not true according to how the individual perceives them

-Therefore truth, according to Protagoras, is relative, and differs according to each individual

Why did the Sophists come to have such a bad reputation?

-Greeks were generally much more willing to ridicule friends & foes

-Plato's entire life's work was consumed with defending his teacher (Socrates) against the assumptions of sophistry

-Plato believed the truth or falsity of statements or thoughts was its correspondence to immutable metaphysical absolutes, what he labels "Forms"

What is the Nature of Death?

-Socrates says "The separation of the Soul and the Body"

-Socrates is hardly sad because he does not fear death

-Embodied life is what prevents genuine knowledge

-The afterlife is where the Forms are

-So, when the soul of the philosopher passes into the afterlife, it is reunited with the Forms

What are Forms?

-The theory suggests that the physical world is not as real or true as ideas, which are timeless, absolute, and unchangeable

-"Ideas" or "Forms" are the non-physical essences of all things, of which objects and matter in the physical world are merely imitations

-The world we can experience empirically (see, touch, hear, taste, smell) is NOT the real world or the knowable world

Allegory of the Sun

-A way to think about the mind

-When its object is something which is lit up by truth and reality, it has intelligent awareness and knowledge

-When its object is permeated with darkness (subject to generation and decay) then it has beliefs and is less effective, because its beliefs chop and change, and under these circumstances it comes across as devoid of intelligence

-The Good is required for us to apprehend objects properly

Allegory of the Divided Line

-4 metaphysical realms

-4 knowledge based

Allegory of the Cave

-We are chained to a cave wall as prisoners

-Shadows on the wall

-You will never know that actual truth of things if you just rely on images

"The light hurts when you've been in a cave your entire life."

-Dr. Jensen

Who came after Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle?

-Alexander (355-323 BC)

-Tutored by Aristotle until the age of 16

-At the age of 20, he succeeded his father Philip II to the throne of Macedon in 336 BCE

-Spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy military campaign throughout Western Asia and Egypt

-Had created one of the largest empires in history by the age of 30 (stretching from Greece to northwestern India)

-Never defeated in battle

The Platonic 'Academy'

-The site of a small grove of olives dedicated to Athena, that was allegedly owned by the (mythical?) Attic hero Academus

-Plato is believed to have inherited (purchased?) part of the land when he was around age 30, possibly sometime in the mid-380s BCE

-Men and women were part of the 'school,' although it didn't charge a tuition or have a formal curriculum

-The 'Academy' endured many instantiations, destructions, and resurrections, closing for good sometime in the 9th Century

The 'Old Academy'

-Plato's immediate successors as 'Scholarch' of the Academy were Speusippus, Xenocrates, Poleman, and Crates

-Aristotle was not invited to be 'Scholarch'

-Not really a 'curriculum,' so much as a site for dialectical exercise, mathematical investigations, and scientific-theoretical inquiry

-The degree to which there was a practical or political component to the academia is unclear

The 'Middle Academy'

-Around 266 BC Arcesilaus Pitane became Scholarch

-Under Arcesilaus the Academy strongly emphasized a version of Academic skepticism closely similar to Pyrrhonism

-Pyrrho of Elis

The 'New Academy'

-Begins with Carneades of Cyrene, who is the fourth 'Scholarch' after Arcesilaus

-The school was still largely skeptical, denying the possibility of knowing an absolute truth

-But Carneades had studied Stoicism with Chrysippus and Diogenes of Babylon, so the school took on those colorations of skepticism, too

-Carneades was followed by Clitomachus and Philo of Larissa, who tried to restore the Academy to Platonism rather than skepticism, and who became a teacher of Cicero in Rome

Neo-Platonism

-Philosophers continued to teach Platonism even after the Academy was destroyed

-Plotinus was the most important Roman-Egyptian philosopher

-Neoplatonists clearly rejected Christianity and their school was a center of intellectual resistance to the prevailing religion

Stoicism (Greek)

-Zeno of Citium was the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy

-Stoicism laid emphasis on goodness and peace of mind gained from living a life of virtue in accordance with nature

-Tripartite study: ethics, physics, and logic

-The purpose of life is to live in accordance with this 'logos' through reasoning correctly

-A bad feeling (pathos) is a disturbance of the mind repugnant to reason, and against nature

-Chrysippus of Soli made the school flourish after the second director, Cleanthes, had taken Zeno in a somewhat mystical direction

-He created an original system of propositional logic and defended a fatalistic view of cosmic fate

-His ethics depended on understanding the nature of the universe, and following it by stamping out unruly passions which depress soul

Stoicism (Roman)

-Became importance between the late Republic and the Empire, with Cato the Younger eventually becoming a role model for later Stoics because of his political opposition to the "tyrant" Julius Caesar

-Imperial period we see a decided shift away from the more theoretical aspects of Stoicism and toward more practical treatments of the ethics

Epictetus

-Born a slave in Hierapolis (Western Turkey) in around 50AD

-Real name is unknown

-Name means 'acquired' or 'gained'

-Was owned by one of Nero's secretaries

-Unclear whether he was disabled from birth or had his leg broken by his master

-In Nero's house, he was allowed to study with the Stoic Musonius Rufus

-Was freed sometime after the death of Nero, in 68AD

-In 93/94 AD, Domitian banished all philosophers from Rome

-Epictetus was forced to move to Nicopolis in Greece, where he founded a Stoic school (lived there until his death)

Achieving Antaraxia

-The first premise of Roman Stoicism is that the human being is rational

-Human beings can examine the content of their impressions to determine whether they are true or false (unlike animals)

-Humans have 'free volition' and 'are' our volitions, meaning our convictions, attitudes, intentions, and decisions are truly ours

-The third premise is that if we wish to be happy, we need to recognize what is and what is not within the sphere of our volition

-Is it 'internal' to our volition or 'external to sphere of influence'?

-If we wish to be happy, we should not value external things

-Emotions are not imposed on us by circumstances or internal forces: they are not beyond our control

-Our feelings, as well as our behaviors, are an expression of our judgements of value

-Essentially, our happiness or unhappiness are absolutely and only within our power

What are 'martyrs'?

-Traditional definition: those who are persecuted, suffer, and (often) die- usually publicly- because they (often) spread and (always) refuse to renounce the Word of God

-The centrality of suffering and death as choices freely made; imitatio Christi

-Offers and accessible theology

What's the matter with the Empire?

-Imperial perspective: Diocletian rules 284-313

-Because of the empire's massive size and continuous influx of provincial/local influences, cultural differences between the multitude of peoples- free and subject- are creating deep schisms that lead to a lack of unity and purpose

Diocletian's solution

-Compulsory, legislated return to traditional, socially-values Roman virtues, practices, and ideals

-Diocletian as "restorer" of "rightful Roman worldview"

-Mos Maiorum>> pietas: rendering appropriate respect and fulfilling rightful obligations to gods country and family

What makes the praise of God possible?

Humility, pride, love of God, disordered desire

Love of God & the restless heart

Sin at the pear tree with friends>> conversion at pear tree with friends

Despairing grief at death of best friend>> hopeful grief at death of mother

Composes panegyric in praise of Emperor>> writes the confessions in praise of God

The Early Development of Christian Monastic Life

-Jesus Christ (c. 4 BC-33 AD)

-Community of the Apostles (1st Century AD)

-Waves of persecution

-Edict of Milan (313 AD) Christianity tolerated in the Roman Empire

The goal of human life (Christian Monasticism)

-To increase in charity (love of God and neighbor) and to decrease in selfishness

-This world is a school of charity as preparation for the kingdom

-The Monastery is a rigorous school of charity

Emperor Constantine

-Mother Helena was a Christian

-Becomes a Christian (312)

-Edict of Milan (313): legalizes Christianity in the Empire

-Convokes the Council of Nicaea

Themes in Confessions

-The restless heart

-The nature of true love

-Philosophical journey: Manichean, Skeptic, Christian

-True Praise: from seeking praise to giving praise

Prophecies of a Messiah

-The Messiah will gather the scattered tribes of Israel

-The Messiah will cleanse the Temple so that God will return

-The Messiah will triumph over Israel's enemies

-The Messiah will reign over the nations

Prophecies of the kingdom of God

-God himself will shepherd

-God will bestow his spirit upon his people

A failed messiah?

-He did not gather the scattered tribes of Israel

-No great sign that God had returned after he cleansed the Temple

-He did not triumph over Israel's enemies

-He did not reign over the nations

What does Jesus do?

-Forgives offenses against God (sins) as if he was primary person offended

-Says he should be loved above all other people, even your own family

-Teaches with authority and claims God is his father

Justification vs. Sanctification

Justification: healing of sin & shame

Sanctification: a share of God's own life; adoption/divinization

Major points in Early Roman History

-Fall of Troy: Aeneas>> Italy (Lavinium)

-Foundation of Alba Longa

-April 21st, 753: Foundation of Rome

-509/508: Expulsion of the Tarquins

Roman Social Classes

-Patricians

-Equites/"Knights"

-Plebeians

-Freedman

-Non-citizens

-Slaves

Major governing elements of Rome

2 Consuls: elected yearly, terms can be repeated, chief exec. Officers, commanders-in-chief of armies, can veto the other

Assemblies: open to all citizens, legislative branch, passed laws suggested by officials; elected government officials and consuls, declared war and peace

Senate: life-time term, appointed by consuls. In charge of all finances; approved/vetoed laws passed by the Assembly; in charge of foreign policy and diplomacy

Tribune of the Plebs: official who could veto new laws on behalf of the poor

3 Effects of Roman Imperialism

1) Importation of Greek culture

2) The problem of latifundia (huge aristocratic land holdings)

-Citizen soldiers fighting>> aristocrats absorb their land

-Poorer classes cannot compete or get land>> urban migration but death of urban employment

-=Not enough men in the army (land/wealth requirement) but more army now needed

3) Increasingly harder to use "small republican government" to maintain massive amounts of controlled land

The Gracchi and Economic Reform

-133 and 121 BCE, tribunes of the plebs

-Limit amount of land that can be owned

>>Redistribution

>>Bolster enrollment in army

-Pass laws to help alleviate burden on poor

-Both assassinated

Populares and Optimates

-Populares was the "peoples party"

-Optimates was the "senatorial party"

-Populares wanted more citizenship

-Optimates wanted more traditional Roman rules