Psychology Chapter 8

Human Development

developmental psychology

scientific study of human behavior and mental processes across the lifespan

development

the pattern of continuity and change in human characteristics that occurs throughout the course of life

nature

an individual’s biological inheritance, especially genes

nurture

an individual’s environmental and social experiences

resilience

a person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

human beings use schemas to make sense of their experience

schema

a mental concept or framework that organizes information and proves a structure for interpreting it

assimilation

an individual’s incorporation of new information into existing knowledge

accommodation

an individual’s adjustment of their schemas to new information

Sensorimotor stage

occurs from 0 to 2 years old where one learns to understand sensory information

preoperational stage

from 2 to 7 years old where one learns language and memory is increased

concrete operational stage

from 7 to 11 years where one learns problem-solving skills

formal operational stage

from 11 years to adulthood where hypothetical, advanced reasoning, critical thinking, and abstract thinking are all developed

object permanence

object continues to exist even when you don’t see it

conservation

a belief in the permanence of certain attributes of objects despite superficial changes

egocentrism

thinking about oneself

executive function

Higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving

imaginary audience

feels like everybody is looking at you

personal fable

adolescents have misunderstandings in their personal life

secure attachment

the ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment

insecure attachment

lack of trust and fear of intimacy

avoidant

children aren’t interested in parent’s actions

anxious

kid cries when mom leaves and then is mad when mom comes back

disorganized

kids that look confused and as if they do not know how mom is going to respond

authoritarian parenting

a restrictive, punitive parenting style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent’s direction and to value hard work and effort

permissive parenting

a parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child’s behavior

authoritative parenting

a parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior

neglectful parenting

a parenting style characterized by lack of parental involvement in the child’s life

temperament

an individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding

easy child

positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and easily adapts to new experiences

difficult child

tends to be fussy and to cry frequently and engages in irregular daily routines

slow-to-warm-up child

low activity level, tends to withdraw from new situations, and is very cautious in the face of new experiences

preconventional morality

a person’s moral reasoning is based primarily on the consequences of a behavior and on punishments and rewards from the external world.

conventional morality

a person abides by standards learned from parents or society’s laws

postconventional morality

the person recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then develops an increasingly personal moral code

Trust vs. Mistrust

from birth to 1.5 years where the virtue is hope. Trust requires a feeling of physical comfort and minimal amount of fear about the future

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

from 1.5 years to 3 years where the virtue is will. Infants discover they have will of their own and assert their independence. Too much restraint or punishment may lead to feelings of shame and doubt.

Initiative vs, Guilt

occurs from age 3 to 5 where virtue is purpose. Children must develop more purposeful behavior to face challenges and are asked to assume responsibility. Guilt may arise if children feel irresponsible or anxious

Industry vs, Inferiority

occurs at age 6 to 11 where the virtue competence. Children direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. The danger is that children feel incompetent and unproductive

Identity vs, Identity Confusion

occurs from age 10 to 20(adolescence) where the virtue is fidelity. Individuals are faced with finding out who they are, what they are about, and where they are going in life

Intimacy vs, Isolation

occurs from 20 to 40 years of age where the virtue is love. This is the stage at which individuals are tasked with forming intimate relationships with others

Generativity vs. Stagnation

occurs from ages 40 to 65 where the virtue is care. This is when the concern of an individual is to assist the younger generation in developing and leading useful lives

Integrity vs. Despair

occurs at age 65+ where the virtue is wisdom. This is when individuals look back and evaluate what they have done with their lives

gender

the social and psychological aspects of being male, female, both, or neither

gender identity

a person’s inner concept of themselves in relation to the ideas of being male, female, both, or neither

sexual orientation

the direction of an individual’s erotic interests, today viewed as a continuum from exclusive male-female relations to exclusive same-gender relations

gender role

roles that reflect society’s expectations for how people of different genders should think, act, and feel

acculturation

managing a life that includes more than one culture

assimilation

adopting a new culture and getting rid of an old one

separation

keeping your old culture but not adopting a new culture

marginalization

neither adopting a new culture nor keeping an old culture

integration

adopting a new culture as well as keeping your old culture

acculturative stress

psychological, social, and physical challenges that individuals experience when adjusting to a new culture

Ruth Winifred Howard

Born in 1900 in Washington D.C. and credits her father for fostering her desire to help people, especially women, the poor, the uneducated, and troubled youth. She worked as a social worker for a short time and then earned her Ph.D. at the University of Minnesota in 1934. She was one of the first African Americans to receive this degree. She studied 229 sets of triplets from ages 0 to 79.