Chapter 11 Vocabulary Keywords

thinking

The process of using knowledge and information to make decisions, solve problems, and form concepts.

problem solving

The process of finding a solution to a difficult or complex issue by overcoming obstacles and reaching a goal.

initial state

The situation or conditions at the beginning of a problem.

goal state

The desired end condition or solution to a problem.

obstacles

Barriers or challenges that prevent reaching the goal state directly.

understanding

Grasping the meaning or structure of a problem, which is crucial for effective problem solving.

problem representation

The way a person interprets, organizes, and mentally structures a problem.

matrix

A visual representation often used in problem solving to organize information into rows and columns.

hierarchical tree diagram

A branching diagram that organizes information in levels, showing relationships among elements.

situated cognition approach

The idea that problem solving is tied to the physical and social context in which it occurs.

embodied cognition approach

Proposes that cognitive processes are deeply rooted in the body's interactions with the world.

algorithm

A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem if followed correctly.

exhaustive search

A method of solving problems by testing all possible options or solutions.

heuristic

A general problem-solving strategy or rule-of-thumb that usually leads to a correct solution, but not always.

analogy approach

Solving a new problem by referring to a solution of a similar past problem.

problem isomorphs

Problems that have the same underlying structure but different surface details.

surface features

Specific details or elements of a problem that are not essential to the underlying structure.

structural features

The underlying relationships and rules that are critical for solving a problem.

subproblems

Smaller, more manageable parts of a larger problem that can be solved step by step.

means‐ends heuristic

A strategy that involves identifying the difference between the current state and goal state, and creating subgoals to reduce the difference.

hill‐climbing heuristic

A strategy where each step moves closer to the goal state, even if it doesn’t consider the overall path.

bottom‐up processing

Information processing that starts with incoming data and builds upward to form a perception or decision.

top‐down processing

Using prior knowledge and expectations to interpret incoming information.

expertise

Highly organized knowledge and skills in a specific area, allowing for more efficient problem solving.

parallel processing

Handling multiple cognitive processes at the same time.

serial processing

Handling cognitive tasks one at a time in sequence.

mental set

A fixed approach or strategy based on previous success that may hinder problem solving in new situations.

fixed mindset

The belief that abilities and intelligence are static and cannot change.

growth mindset

The belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort and learning.

functional fixedness

A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.

gender stereotypes

Generalized beliefs about characteristics and roles of males and females that can affect cognition and behavior.

stereotype threat

The risk of confirming negative stereotypes about one’s social group, which can impair performance.

insight problem

A problem that requires a sudden realization or “aha!” moment to reach a solution.

noninsight problem

A problem that is solved gradually through conscious, step-by-step strategies.

creativity

The ability to produce ideas or solutions that are both novel and useful.

divergent production

Generating multiple possible solutions to an open-ended problem.

convergent production

Focusing on finding the single best solution to a problem.

extrinsic motivation

Motivation driven by external rewards such as money, grades, or approval.

intrinsic motivation

Motivation driven by internal satisfaction and interest in the task itself.

self‐efficacy

Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific tasks or situations.

perseverance

The continued effort to achieve a goal despite difficulties or setbacks.