AI created based on exam 1 slides

• Element

Substance made of one type of atom

• Atom

Smallest unit of an element that retains its properties

• Proton

Positively charged particle in the nucleus

• Neutron

Neutral particle in the nucleus

• Electron

Negatively charged particle found in orbitals around the nucleus

• Nucleus

Center of an atom containing protons and neutrons

• Orbital

Region where an electron is most likely to be found

• Electron shell

Group of orbitals with similar energy levels

• First electron shell

Holds a maximum of 2 electrons

• Second electron shell

Holds a maximum of 8 electrons

• Valence electrons

Electrons in the outermost shell that participate in bonding

• Molecule

Two or more atoms bonded together

• Chemical bond

Force that holds atoms together

• Covalent bond

Bond formed by sharing electrons

• Polar covalent bond

Covalent bond with unequal sharing of electrons

• Nonpolar covalent bond

Covalent bond with equal sharing of electrons

• Ionic bond

Bond formed by transfer of electrons between atoms

• Hydrogen bond

Weak attraction between partially charged molecules or parts of molecules

• Ion

Atom with a positive or negative charge due to gaining or losing electrons

• Cation

Positively charged ion formed by losing electrons

• Anion

Negatively charged ion formed by gaining electrons

• Salt

Compound held together by ionic bonds

• Isotope

Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons

• Uncharged atom

Atom with equal numbers of protons and electrons

• Water (H₂O)

Polar molecule essential for life

• Partial negative charge

Slight negative charge on oxygen in water

• Partial positive charge

Slight positive charge on hydrogen in water

• Cohesion

Attraction between molecules of the same substance

• Adhesion

Attraction between molecules of different substances

• Surface tension

Resistance of a liquid surface caused by cohesion

• Solvent

Substance that dissolves another substance

• Solute

Substance dissolved in a solvent

• Hydrophilic

Water-attracting; dissolves well in water

• Hydrophobic

Water-repelling; does not dissolve well in water

• Amphipathic molecule

Molecule with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions

• Micelle

Cluster formed when amphipathic molecules surround hydrophobic substances in water

• Ice

Less dense than liquid water because hydrogen bonds hold molecules farther apart

• Density

Mass per unit volume

• Ionization of water

Water molecules split into H⁺ and OH⁻ ions

• H⁺

Hydrogen ion (proton)

• OH⁻

Hydroxide ion

• Acid

Substance that increases H⁺ concentration

• Base

Substance that increases OH⁻ concentration or decreases H⁺ concentration

• Strong acid

Acid that dissociates almost completely in water

• Weak acid

Acid that dissociates only partially in water

• Strong base

Base that dissociates almost completely in water

• Weak base

Base that dissociates only partially in water

• pH

Measure of hydrogen ion concentration

• Neutral solution

pH of 7

• Acidic solution

pH below 7

• Basic (alkaline) solution

pH above 7

• Chemical reaction

Process that converts reactants into products

• Reactants

Starting materials in a chemical reaction

• Products

Substances formed by a chemical reaction

• Chemical equilibrium

State where forward and reverse reactions occur at equal rates

• Endothermic reaction

Reaction that absorbs heat

• Exothermic reaction

Reaction that releases heat

• Energy

Capacity to do work or produce heat

• Potential energy

Stored energy

• Kinetic energy

Energy of motion

• First law of thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed

• Second law of thermodynamics

Entropy tends to increase

• Entropy

Measure of disorder in a system

• Gibbs free energy (ΔG)

Predicts whether a reaction is spontaneous

• Exergonic reaction

Spontaneous reaction with ΔG less than 0

• Endergonic reaction

Reaction requiring energy input with ΔG greater than 0

• Carbon

Element with four valence electrons that forms many covalent bonds

• Organic molecule

Carbon-containing molecule

• Hydrocarbon

Molecule composed only of carbon and hydrogen

• Carbon skeleton

Chain or ring of carbon atoms that forms the backbone of an organic molecule

• Functional group

Group of atoms attached to a carbon skeleton that determines chemical behavior

• Hydroxyl group

Functional group (-OH) that acts as a weak acid

• Carbonyl group

Functional group involved in linking molecules together

• Carboxyl group

Functional group (-COOH) that donates H⁺ ions

• Amino group

Functional group (-NH₂) that accepts H⁺ ions

• Phosphate group

Functional group with two negative charges important in energy transfer

• Sulfhydryl group

Functional group (-SH) that forms disulfide bonds

• Isomer

Molecule with the same molecular formula but a different structure

• Structural isomer

Isomer differing in the arrangement of covalent bonds

• Enantiomer

Mirror-image isomer with different three-dimensional arrangement

• Monomer

Small building block of a polymer

• Polymer

Large molecule made of many monomers

• Dehydration reaction (condensation)

Reaction that joins monomers by removing water

• Hydrolysis

Reaction that breaks polymers apart by adding water

• Carbohydrate

Sugar or polymer of sugars used for energy and structure

• Monosaccharide

Simple sugar; single carbohydrate monomer

• Disaccharide

Two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage

• Polysaccharide

Polymer made of many monosaccharides

• Glycosidic linkage

Covalent bond joining two sugars

• Glucose

Six-carbon monosaccharide; primary fuel for cells

• Fructose

Six-carbon ketose sugar

• Galactose

Six-carbon monosaccharide and structural isomer of glucose

• Aldose

Sugar with a carbonyl group at the end

• Ketose

Sugar with a carbonyl group inside the carbon chain

• Hexose

Six-carbon sugar

• Pentose

Five-carbon sugar

• Triose

Three-carbon sugar

• CH₂O ratio

General molecular formula pattern of monosaccharides

• Monosaccharide function

Immediate energy source and building block for larger molecules

• Disaccharide function

Short-term energy storage and transport sugar