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what is biology
the scientific study of life
what is life
an imperfect replicating system that evolves by natural selection
the basic properties of life
life is ordered
life uses energy
life undergoes growth and development
life responds to its environment
life regulates itself
life reproduces
life adapts by evolutionary adaptation
describe-life is ordered
organized into highly ordered structures
energy must be put into the system to maintain order
non living things can be ordered, but less than living things (crystalline structure of minerals)
describe-life uses energy
maintenance of order
reproduction
movement in the environment
obtaining food and resources for growth and development
describe-life undergoes growth and development
DNA is inherited and controls the pattern of growth and development through the regulation of gene expression
describe-life responds to its environment
constant monitoring of its environment
predator avoidance
changing diet according to season
tilting leaves and flowers towards the light
regulating internal conditons
temperature
describe-life regulates itself
homeostasis is the steady state regulation of the organism
often a response to environment
flow of blood through your vessels
describe-life reproduces
the need to make more of its own kind
asexual and sexual modes of reproduction
cloning, fragmentation, budding, sex
describe-life adapts by evolutionary adaptation
populations of species adapt to their environment by evolution
the environment selects against individuals that are not suited to the environment via natural selection
arrange the levels of biological organization in their proper order
the biosphere - consists of all life on earth contained within all the ecosystems
ecosystems - all living things + non living within a particular area
communities - assemblages of different populations of different species living close together with the potential to interact
populations - group of interbreeding individuals of the same species that live in the same area
organisms - individual living things
organs - a collection of different tissues with a specialized function
tissues - a collection of differentiated, specialized cells
cells - a collection of organelles within a membrane
organelles - a collection of molecules form organelles (in eukaryotes)
molecules
what is a virus
dna/rna is surrounded by a capsid
when a cell is infected, the virus releases its genetic material which hijacks the cell into producing more viruses
are viruses living
no because they don’t meet all the 7 criteria of living organisms
eukaryotes
use dna as genetic code
one domain - eukarya
have a nucleus and other internal compartments
single celled or multicellular - humans
prokaryotes
two domains - bacteria and archaea
use dna as genetic code
no nucleus
always single celled
describe how energy flows through an ecosystem while nutrients cycle within it
energy is transformed from the sun by photosynthesis and transformed again in cellular respiration. energy is transferred to metabolic processes and food chains. the energy is then lost as heat in the ecosystem.
plants take up chemicals from the soil and air, the chemicals in the plants will then be passed to organisms that eat the plants. energy is then returned to the soil via decomposition by fungi and bacteria
list the 3 domains of life
bacteria - prokaryote
archaea - prokaryote
eukaryotes
phylogenetic trees
represent hypothesis about the evolutionary relationship of the organism - usually based on DNA/genetic relationships
arrange the taxa in their proper Linnaean hierarchy
King Philip Cried Out, ‘For Goodness Sake’
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
hypothesis
a proposed explanation based on observations and assumptions that is testable
an explanation that is broader in scope than a hypothesis, generates new hypotheses
theory
is supported by a large body of evidence
there is one theory in biology: cel theory (cells are fundamental unit of structure in living things) (supported by many independent hypotheses and observations)
inductive reasoning
type of logic in which generalizations are based on large number of observations
deductive reasoning
logic that flows in the opposite direction, so from general to specific
takes on IF and THEN
cause
factor A leads to condition B
low temperatures cause leaf colour change
if i study, i will do well in my class
correlation
when factor A changes, so does condition B
heart rate increases with increased physical activity
can be actual or meaningless
outline the requirements for natural selection
organisms have variable traits that make them unique (phenotype)
the traits must be variable within the population
the traits must be passed on from parent to offspring (heritable)
natural selection acts on these traits (evolutionary adaptation)
selective pressure
favourable traits are selected for and passed onto the next generation
unfavourable traits are selected against and not passed on
evolution
descent with modification
aristotle
saw species as unchanging, or fixed
scala naturae
basis of old testament
carl linnaeus
classified life according to their similarities
linnaean classification of taxonomy
described based on pattern of their creation
georges cuvier
noted older strata had different species that newer strata
speculated that each stratum represented a single catastrophic event leading to the extinction of that species
james hutton
proposed that earth’s geological features were a result of gradual processes (erosion, valleys being formed by rivers)
charles lyell
proposed the same geological process in the past were occurring in the present, at the same rate
jean baptiste lamarck
proposed the first hypothesized mechanism for evolution
suggested that evolutionary change explains the patterns seen in the fossils and how certain organisms are found in certain environments
suggested there were multiple lines of descent (older to newer fossils)
suggested it was explained by use and disuse
inheritance of acquired characteristics
adaptive radiation
a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms
when a change in the environment makes new resources available, creates new challenges or opens new environmental niches
phylogenetic trees
depicted are the evolutionary relationships of vertabrates
all organisms have been evolving for the same amount of time
diverging from previous ancestor every time
artificial selection
modifying other species by selecting and breeding individuals with desired traits
relative fitness
contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to other individuals in that population
traits that can lead to relative fitness
not having a genetic disorder
not getting eaten by a predator
not getting a disease
surviving environment conditions
accumulating nutrients
ability to attract a mate
vestigial structures
had a function in a past ancestral species, but is no longer useful today
tailbones
homologies
features that have underlying similarity but different functions
homologous structures
can have similar structures, different functions due to selection for those functions over time
divergent evolution
structures adapt by natural selection to do different functions (diverged into different structures)
analogous structures
similar function, different structure
convergent evolution
unrelated species that develop similar characteristics over time
genetic drift
the change in frequency of an existing gene variant in the population due to random chance
gene flow
the transfer of genetic material from one population to another (movement of genes)
relative fitness
the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to the contributions of other individuals
directional selection
shifts the overall makeup of the population by favouring variants that are at one extreme of the phenotypic distribution
light mice selected against
disruptive selection
favours variants at both ends of the phenotypic extreme
intermediate colour selected against
stabilising selection
removes the extreme phenotypic variants from the population and preserves the intermediate types
light mice and dark mice selected against
sexual selection
individuals with certain inherited traits are more likely that others to obtain mates
intrasexual selection
selection within the same sex where individuals compete directly for mates of the opposite sex
intersexual selection
“mate choice” individuals in one sex are choosy in selecting mates
balancing selection
maintains two or more phenotypic forms in a population
frequency dependent selection
the fitness of a phenotypic depends on how common it is in the population
heterozygote advantage
heterozygous individuals have greater relative fitness than either of the homozygous individuals
sickle cell
malaria
conditions on early earth made life possible
the abiotic synthesis of small molecules, such as amino acids and nitrogenous bases
the joining of these molecules into macromolecules, such as proteins and nucleotides
the packaging of these molecules into protocells (first cells)
the origin of self replicating molecules that eventually made inheritance possible
geological record
standard scale of time that divides earth’s history into four eons and further subdivisions
mass extinctions
results in the loss of many species over a large expanse in a short amount of time
there have been 5 mass extinctions
consequences of mass extinctions
reduce a larger number of species
reduce a complex ecological community to a shell
species cannot reappear
adaptive radiations (benefits of mass extinction)
groups of organisms form many new species in relatively short time and whose adaptations can enable them to survive in environments their ancestors couldn’t
elements
cannot be broken down to smaller substances
92 natural elements 20 man made
compounds
contains 2 or more elements in fixed ratios
atoms
smallest unit of life
neutrons - neutral
electrons - negative charge
protons - positive charge
atomic mass
the sum of the protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus
atomic number
is the number of protons in the atom
each element has a unique number of protons within its atoms
isotopes
same number of protons, different number of neutrons
stables isotopes do not lose subatomic particles
radioactive isotopes release subatomic particles and energy as the nucleus decays
carbon has __ naturally occurring isotopes
carbon 12- stable, most common 6 protons 6 neutrons 99% of all carbon
carbon 13- stable 7 neutrons 6 protons
carbon 14-unstable/radioactive 6 protons 8 neutrons
electron shells
orbitals that surround the nucleus
depicted as rings
1st shell 2 electrons 1s orbital
2nd shell 8 electrons 2s orbitals 2p orbitals
s=sphere
p=peanut
valence electron
the outermost, unused electrons
valence shell
outermost electron shell
ionic bonds
transfer electrons
formed between ions to fill valence shell
cations - positive
anion - negative
covalent bond
result from sharing electrons
molecules
two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
polarity
difference in charge
electronegativity
the attraction of a particular atom’s electrons in a covalent bond
non polar covalent bond
the electrons are shared equally(due to the same electronegativity)
polar covalent bond
the electrons are shared unequally due to one atom being more electronegative than the other
most electronegative element
oxygen
hydrogen bonds
a weak chemical interaction
hydrogen is covalently bonded to an electronegative atom
van der waals interactions
weak interactions between molecules that have varying partial charges
interactions between foot molecules and wall molecules allow geckos to climb vertical walls
what do chemical reactions
change the composition of matter by making or breaking chemical bonds
when is chemical equilibrium achieved
when the forward and reverse rates ares the same
hydrogen ion
hydroxide ion
hydronium ion
H+ a single proton
OH- a water molecule that lost a proton
H3O+ water molecule that gains a proton
which is more electronegative, oxygen or hydrogen
oxygen, bonds between oxygen and hydrogen are polar covalent within a single water molecule
water molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds
water molecules can stay together
cohesion: the linking together of the water molecules via hydrogen bonding
results in surface tension, a measure of how hard it is to break/stretch the surface of a liquid
adhesion: the clinging together of one substance to another
high specific capacity
the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost to change the temperature of 1g of substance by 1C
water moderates temperature
warms the air at night, cools during day
water stabilizes ocean temperatures making favourable environments
solid water is less dense than liquid water
ice floats
water molecules expand as the freeze
more air pockets, less dense
water is the solvent of life
solutions
are homogenous mixtures of two or more substances
solvent
does the dissolving
solute
is the thing being dissolved
aqueous solutions
solutions made by dissolving solutes in water
hydrophobic
repels water
hyrdophilic
water loving
concentration
the number of moles of solute per litre of solution
acid
increases the hydrogen concentration of a solution H+ goes up
acids dissolve in water
dissociates to release hydrogen ions
base
reduces the hydrogen concentration of a solution OH- goes up
bases dissolve in water
lowers concentration by:accepting hydrogen ions, dissociating to produce excess hydrogen ions
pH scale
measures the logarithmic concentration of hydrogen ions