Intro to Psychology- midterm

Psychology

Science that studies mind, behavior, and emotions

Wundt Psychology

Scope: consciousness

Method: Introspection and Experimental

Established psychology as an independent discipline in 1879 with the first psychology laboratory. His approach, known as structuralism, aimed to break down consciousness into basic elements like sensations, feelings, and thoughts.

Main theories of psychology

Behaviorism, Psychoanalysis, epistemology, sociocultural

Methodology

systematic principles, strategies, and techniques used to study mental processes and behavior. It includes the design, procedures, and tools psychologists use to conduct research, gather data, and analyze findings

quantitative

Uses numerical data and statistical analysis to measure psychological phenomena.

To identify patterns, test hypotheses, and establish cause-effect relationships.

Associations, correlation, how many/much, prevalence, cause and effect

Qualitative

Focuses on non-numerical data to explore experiences, meanings, and interpretations.

To understand human behavior in depth, considering emotions, culture, and individual perspectives.

No previous data

experiment

A research method that involves manipulating one or more variables (independent variables) to observe their effect on another variable (dependent variable), while controlling external factors.

Establishes cause-and-effect relationships.
High control over variables.
Can be replicated for reliability.

May lack real-world applicability (artificial settings).
Ethical constraints (e.g., can’t assign trauma to study its effects).
Some variables cannot be manipulated (e.g., personality traits).

non-experimental

Research that does not involve manipulation of variables but instead observes, describes, or correlates them.

Useful when experiments are not feasible.
Allows study of real-world settings.
Provides rich, detailed data (especially case studies).

Cannot establish causation (only correlation).
Subject to bias (e.g., self-report surveys may be inaccurate).
Less control over variables.

explorative

A research approach aimed at gathering preliminary insights about a new or poorly understood topic. It helps in generating hypotheses rather than testing them.

to explore new areas where little information exists.

To identify key variables for future research.

To develop initial theories.

Literature reviews

Open-ended interviews

Case studies

Focus groups

descriptive

A research method that systematically describes a phenomenon, population, or behavior without manipulating variables.

To observe and document behaviors, events, or characteristics.

To provide a detailed picture of a subject.

Surveys & questionnaires

Observational studies

Case studies

correlation

A method that examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulation.

To determine if a relationship exists between variables.

to measure the strength and direction of relationships.

To predict one variable based on another.

Surveys

Observational studies

Secondary data analysis

Statistical correlation coefficients

explanatory

A research method aimed at understanding the cause-and-effect relationship between variables.

To determine why something happens.

To identify causal relationships between variables.

To establish cause and effect through controlled studies.

Experiments (Lab/Field/Quasi-Experiments)

Longitudinal Studies

Randomized Control Trials (RCTs)

Behaviorism

psychological approach that focuses on the study of observable behaviors, rather than internal mental processes. It emphasizes that behavior is learned through interactions with the environment and shaped by stimuli and reinforcement.

Scope: behavior

method: experimental

Classical Conditioning vs operant conditioning

Classical conditioning

Pavlov
a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, leading to a conditioned response.

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response (e.g., food)

unconditioned response

An automatic response to UCS (e.g., salivation when seeing food).

neutral stimulus

A stimulus that initially has no effect (e.g., a bell).

conditioned stimulus

The previously neutral stimulus that, after association with UCS, triggers a response (e.g., bell after conditioning).

conditioned response

A learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation at the sound of the bell).

operant conditioning

Skinner

focuses on how behavior is shaped by reinforcements and punishments. It explains voluntary behaviors through consequences.

Reinforcement

Increases the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive reinforcement

Adding something pleasant (e.g., praise, rewards).

Negative reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant (e.g., taking painkillers to relieve pain).

Punishment

Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive punishment

Adding something unpleasant (e.g., giving a fine for speeding).

Negative punishment

Removing something pleasant (e.g., taking away a child’s toy).

Psychoanalysis

a psychological theory and therapeutic method developed by Sigmund Freud that focuses on how unconscious thoughts, desires, and conflicts influence human behavior. It suggests that mental disorders arise from repressed emotions and unresolved childhood experiences and can be treated by bringing these unconscious elements into conscious awareness.

Scope: unconsciousness

method: hypnosis, free association, formation of commitment

1st topic vs 2nd topic

1st topic

consciousness, pre consciousness, unconsciousness

consciousness

Includes thoughts and perceptions that we are currently aware of

pre consciousness

Contains memories and knowledge that can be accessed when needed

unconsciousness

Holds repressed desires, instincts, and unresolved conflicts from childhood, influencing our behavior without us realizing it.

2nd topic

Id, ego, superego

Id

Instictual drives, wants, Devil on shoulder

Ego

moral conscience, societal norms

cognitive development theory

Piaget's theory emphasizes how children actively construct their understanding of the world as they interact with their environment. He believed that children’s thinking evolves in an orderly, predictable way, influenced by both biological maturation and environmental interactions.

scope: how we learn

method: clinical, genetic, comparative

structuralist vs interactionist vs constructivist

sensorimotor → pre operational → concrete operational → formal operational

cognitive schema

structuralist

to understand the structure of the human mind by analyzing the basic components of consciousness.

introspection

Interactionism

behavior is a result of the interaction between individuals and their environments. This perspective highlights the dynamic and reciprocal relationship between personal and situational factors.

constructivism

It emphasizes the idea that individuals actively construct their own understanding of the world based on experiencesand interactions.

cognitive schema

framework that organizes information about the world around us it is a packet of information in our brains that categorizes objects and concepts into groups

assimilation

no changes of schema, incorporating environment into an existing schema

accommodation

changing schema to adapt to reality

sensorimotor

0-24 months

Infants learn about the world through their senses (seeing, hearing, touching) and motor activities (movement).

Object Permanence: One of the most significant developments in this stage is the concept of object permanence — the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can’t be seen, heard, or touched.

At this stage, babies are exploratory and learn through direct interaction with their environment.

pre operational

2-7 years

Symbolic Thinking: Children begin to use symbols, such as words and images, to represent objects and events. This is the basis for language and imaginative play.

Egocentrism: Children in this stage have difficulty seeing things from others’ perspectives. They tend to believe that others experience the world the same way they do.

Animism: The tendency to attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects (e.g., thinking a doll can feel pain).

Lack of Conservation: Children do not yet understand that quantity remains the same even when its appearance changes (e.g., pouring liquid into different shaped glasses and thinking the amount of liquid has changed).

concrete operational

7-11 years

Logical Thinking: Children begin to think logically about concrete events. They can perform operations like adding, subtracting, and categorizing objects, but only when those objects are physically present.

Conservation: They develop an understanding that quantity remains the same even if its appearance changes (e.g., water in a tall glass vs. a short glass).

Reversibility: The ability to understand that objects can be returned to their original state (e.g., if you break a cookie, you can put it back together).

Classification: Children can now classify objects into categories and understand hierarchical relationships (e.g., understanding that a poodle is both a dog and a type of dog).

formal operational

11-18 years

Abstract Thinking: Adolescents can now think abstractly and hypothetically. They can reason about situations that they have never experienced and think about possible outcomes.

Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning: The ability to form hypotheses and systematically test them. They can think about what might be rather than what is.

Propositional Thought: They can think logically about statements or propositions that are not tied to real-world situations (e.g., understanding that if "all humans are mortal" and "Socrates is a human," then "Socrates is mortal").

sociocultural psychology

Lev Vygotsky

focuses on the impact of society and culture on human behavior and mental processes. This perspective emphasizes the role of social interaction, cultural context, and the influence of societal structures in shaping individual development, cognition, and behavior.

scope: consciousness

Ontogenetic development

birth to death

phylogenetic development

development of species over a very long period

sociocultural development

changes/development in cultural values, norms, and technology

instruments of mediation

the process by which humans interact with the world and mediate their cognitive processes through the use of cultural tools (physical or symbolic). Mediation is essential in Vygotsky's theory because it highlights how human thinking is socially and culturally shaped.

tools: physical (external)

signs: intangible (language, ideas, etc) (internal)

Zone of proximal development

skills too difficult for a child to master on their own, but can be done with guidance and encouragement (scaffolding) from a knowledgable person (usually adult)