Bio - Chap 26

What are used for energy and as building materials for cell structures, enzymes, hemoglobin, hormones, and muscle and bone tissue?

proteins

What is the international standard measure of appropriate body weight, estimated as your body weight in kilograms, divided by your height in meters squared?

body mass index

What is the part of plant food that cannot be digested by humans and found in fruits, vegetables, and grains?

fiber

What are the eight amino acids that humans are unable to synthesize which must therefore be obtained from proteins in the food we eat?

essential amino acids

What are minerals required in very small amounts? These include iodine, cobalt, zinc, and molybdenum.

trace elements

What are essential organic substances that are used in trace amounts?

vitamins

What disease are people with vitamin C deficiencies susceptible to which is characterized by weakness, spongy gums, and bleeding of the skin and mucous membranes?

scurvy

What proteins snuggle up against the insulin receptor inside the cell to turn on a normal cell’s glucose transporting machinery?

insulin receptor substrate

What hormone is produced by fat cells and prompts tissues to resist insulin?

resistin

What are animals that eat plants exclusively?

herbivores

What are animals that are meat eaters?

carnivores

What are animals that eat both plants and other animals?

omnivores

What body process is when you break down the larger food molecules of polysaccharides, fats, and proteins?

digestion

What is the common passage of the oral and nasal cavities?

pharynx

What is the cavity that the waste products emerge from the large intestine into which also receives the products of the urinary and reproductive systems?

cloaca

What is the group of mammals that consume grass and other vegetables who have stomachs with multiple chambers, where bacteria aid in the digestion of cellulose?

ruminants

Which what organ do other herbivores digest cellulose with which is a blind pouch located at the beginning of the large intestine?

cecum

What is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract which is an epithelium that lines the interior of the tract?

mucosa

What is the second innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract which is composed of connective tissue?

submucosa

What is the third innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract which consists of a double layer of smooth muscles, with one layer having a circular orientation and the second longitudinally?

muscularis

What is layer of the gastrointestinal tract covers the external surface of the tract?

serosa

What are the regions where nerves are intertwined in the submucosa to help regulate the gastrointestinal activities?

plexuses

In which chamber in the bird stomach do small pebbles ingested by the bird churn together with the food by muscular action?

gizzard

What are the sharp, pointed teeth on each side of the incisors which are used for tearing food?

cuspids

What is the bonelike substance that anchors the tooth in the jaw?

cementum

What is the interior of the tooth that extends into the root canals and contains nerves and blood vessels?

pulp

What is the extremely hard, nonliving substance that protects the tooth against abrasion and acids that are produced by bacteria living in the mouth?

enamel

What is the mucous solution that the tongue mixes with food?

saliva

What is the hydrolytic enzyme that saliva contains which initiates the breakdown of the polysaccharide starch into the disaccharide maltose?

amylase

What is the muscular tube which swallowed food enters and connects the pharynx to the stomach?

esophagus

What are the rhythmic waves of muscular contraction that move food along the esophagus to the stomach?

peristalsis

What is the movement of food from the esophagus into the stomach is controlled by which is a ring a circular smooth muscle that opens in response to the pressure exerted by the food?

sphincter

What is the irritation causes by movement of the stomach acid into the esophagus?

heartburn

What is the saclike portion of the digestive tract? It is able to fold up when empty and open out like a balloon as it fills with food?

Stomach

What is an acidic secretion of the tubular gastric glands of the mucosa?

gastric juice

What kind of secretory cell secrete hydrochloric acid?

parietal

What kind of secretory cell secrete pepsinogen?

chief

What is the weak protease released by chief cells which require a very low pH to be active?

pepsinogen

What is the mixture of partially digested food and gastric juice?

chyme

What hormone regulates the synthesis of HCl by the parietal cells of the gastric pits?

gastrin

What do the parietal cells of the stomach secrete which is a polypeptide needed for the intestinal absorption of vitamin B12?

intrinsic factor

What is the type of anemia developed when a person lacks sufficient intrinsic factor?

pernicious

What does chyme leave the stomach through to enter the small intestine?

pyloric sphincter

Where does the breaking down of large molecules into small ones occur?

small intestine

What is the initial segment of the small intestine where the pancreas send its secretions through?

duodenum

What carries out the digestion of fats? They are secreted into the duodenum from the liver.

bile salts

What is the rest of the small intestine called which is devoted to absorbing water and the products of digestion into the bloodstream?

ileum

What is the lining of the small intestine covered by which are fine fingerlike projections?

villi

What are each of the cells covering a villus covered on its outer surface with, which is a field of cytoplasmic projections?

microvilli

What is the part of the digestive tract that serves as a refuse dump and is where large amounts of undigested material and cellulose is compacted and stored, where they play a role in processing undigested material into feces?

large intestine

What is the final segment of the digestive tract that is a short extension of the large intestine?

rectum

From where does the solid material from the rectum pass out of?

anus

What part of the first portion of the ruminant stomach serves as a fermentation vat in which prokaryotes and protists convert cellulose and other molecules into a variety of simpler compounds?

rumen

What is the activity where an animal regurgitates and rechews the contents of the rumen?

rumination

What is the practice where animals eat their own feces to absorb the nutrients produced by the microorganisms in the cecum?

coprophagy

What is the large gland situated near the junction of the stomach and the small intestine, which is one of the accessory organs that contribute secretions to the digestive tract?

pancreas

What does pancreatic fluid contain, which neutralizes the HCl from the stomach and gives the chyme in the duodenum a slightly alkaline pH?

bicarbonate

What are the clusters of endocrine cells scattered throughout the pancreas which secrete several hormones into the blood that control glucose level?

islets of Langerhans

What is the largest internal organ of the body which secretes bile?

liver

What is the fluid mixture from the liver consisting of bile pigments and bile salts that is delivered into the duodenum during the digestion of a meal?

bile

After it is produced in the liver, where is bile stored and concentrates into?

gallbladder

What is the process of removing an amino group from the amino acid?

deamination

What is the dynamic constancy of the internal environment?

homeostasis

What types of mammals and birds can maintain relatively constant body temp independent of environemtn temp?

endothermic

What types of vertebrates other than mammals and birds have body temps more or less dependent on the environmental temp?

ectothermic

What hormone stimulates the breakdown of liver glycogen?

glucagon

What are the nitrogen-containing by-products produced when animals catabolize amino acids and nucleic acids for energy or convert them to carbs/lipids?

nitrogenous wastes

The first step in the metabolism of amino acids and nucleic acids is the removal of the amino group and its combination with H+ to form what? It is quite toxic to cells.

ammonia

In sharks, adult amphibians, and mammals, the nitrogenous wastes are eliminated in the far less toxic form of what? It is water-soluble and so can be excreted in large amounts in the urine.

urea

Reptiles, birds, and insects excrete nitrogenous wastes in what form, which is only slightly soluble in water?

uric acid

What is the pasty white material in bird droppings formed from uric acid?

guano

What mammal enzyme converts uric acid into a more soluble derivative, allantoin?

uricase

What does uricase convert uric acid into?

allantoin

What condition is when there is excessive accumulation of uric acid in the joints?

gout

What is the regulation of the body’s osmotic composition?

osmoregulation

In flatworms, what are the little tubes that expel fluid and wastes and branch throughout the body into bulblike flame cells?

protonephridia

In flatworms, what do the protonephridia branch throughout the body into?

flame cells

In earthworms what are the tubules that open both to the inside and outside of the body?

nephridia

What are the funnel-shaped structures which a process of filtration occurs where the nephridia obtain fluid from the body cavity?

nephrostomes

What is the general term for transport out of the tubule and into the surrounding body fluids?

reabsorption

What are the excretory organs of insects?

Malpighian tubules

What are the excretory organs in vertebrates?

kidneys

What are the repeating disposal units that make up the kidney?

nephrons

What is the name of the capillary bed through which blood pressure forces the fluid in blood at the top of each nephron? It retains blood cells, proteins, and large molecules but allows the water and small molecules to pass through and into the bent tube part of the nephron

glomerulus

What are marine bony fish, which water tends to leave their bodies by osmosis across their gills and lose water in urine?

teleosts

What are by far the most common subclass in the class Chondrichthyes which have solved the osmotic problem by instead of having body fluids that are hypotonic to seawater so that they have to continuously drink seawater and actively pump out ions? Sharks, rays, and skates.

elasmobranchs

The kidneys of what animal are so efficient that it never has to drink water?

kangaroo rat

What portion of the nephron is the production of hypertonic urine accomplished by?

loop of Henle

Where does each kidney drain urine from?

ureter

Where does the ureter carry urine to?

urinary bladder

What is funnel-like structure in the kidney which has cup-shaped extensions that receive urine from the renal tissue?

renal pelvis

What is the outer part of renal tissue?

renal cortex

What is the inner part of renal tissue?

renal medulla

What is the filtration device at the top of each nephron called?

Bowman’s capsule

Within each Bowman’s capsule, what the fine network of vessels that an arteriole enters and splits into?

glomerulus

What does the loop of Henle empty into which is a large collection tube?

collecting duct

What is the filterable stream in the glomerulus that contains water, nitrogenous wastes, nutrients, and ions?

glomerular filtrate

What active transport process excretes into the urine other nitrogenous wastes such as uric acid and ammonia, and other substances are added to the urine?

tubular excretion