AP Psychology Ultimate Exam Review

Every topic covered during the AP Psychology course made into flashcards.

behavioral perspective

how behaviors are learned & reinforced through interactions with the environment

associative learning

an individual makes connections between events occurring together: classical conditioning & operant conditioning

habituation

growing accustomed to a stimulus over time

classical conditioning

associating 2 stimuli to anticipate events

unconditioned stimulus (usc)

a stimulus naturally & automatically triggering a response without learning

unconditioned response (ur)

natural & automatic reaction to a stimulus without prior learning or conditioning

conditioned stimulus (cs)

a previously neutral stimulus, once repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, provokes conditioned response

conditioned response (cr)

a learned response occurring when conditioned stimulus is present, resulting from association with unconditioned stimulus

acquisition

the initial learning of an association

extinction

the process where a conditioned response weakens & disappears when conditioned stimulus is present without the unconditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

reappearance of a previously extinguished cr after period of rest

stimulus discrimination

ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond differently to them

stimulus generalization

tendency to response to stimuli similar to cs as a result of conditioning

higher-order conditioning

process where previously conditioned stimulus is used to create new associations

counter-conditioning

changing a learned response to something more preferred by pairing it with different experience

taste aversion

learned association between the taste of food and feeling sick

one-trial conditioning

learning that happens after just one pairing

biological preparedness

innate tendency to quickly learn associations between certain stimuli & responses relevant to survival

operant conditioning

type of learning in which behavior is strengthened/weakened by consequences like reinforcement and punishment

the law of effect

behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated, behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

reinforcement

any consequence that increases likelihood behavior occurring again

primary reinforcers

things we naturally like (food, water, safety)

secondary reinforcers

things we learn to like (money, praise, trophies)

positive reinforcement

presenting desirable stimuli to increase likelihood of repetition

negative reinforcement

removing an adverse stimulus to increase likelihood of repetition

punishment

any consequence decreasing the likelihood of recurring behavior

positive punishment

adding an adverse stimulus to decrease likelihood of recurring behavior

negative punishment

removing a desirable stimulus to decrease likelihood of recurring behavior

shaping

gradually reinforcing behaviors that are closer and closer to desired behavior

instinctive drift

animals go back to natural instincts instead of new behavior

superstitious behavior

accidental reinforcement of behaviors, leading to belief that they were causing desired outcomes even if not

reinforcement schedules

patterns determining when and how reinforcement is given, influencing rate & persistence of behavior

fixed interval

reinforcement delivered after fixed amount of time has passed since last reinforcement

variable interval

reinforcement delivered after varying amounts of time have passed since last reinforcement

fixed ratio

reinforcement delivered after fixed number of replies

variable ratio

reinforcement delivered after unpredictable number of responses

learned helplessness

belief that no one can control circumstances, learned through repeated exposure to uncontrollable events

social learning theory

emphasizes importance of observing & imitating behavior from others

vicarious conditioning

learning by observing consequences of others actions without experiencing for yourself

insight learning

sudden understanding of a problem without prior trial and error

latent learning

learning without obvious reinforcement or motivation, but not demonstrated until necessary

cognitive map

mental representations of spatial layouts, allowing individuals to navigate & understand their environment

instincts

innate, fixed patterns of behavior in animals triggered by specific stimuli

drive-reduction theory

behavior is motivated by a need to reduce internal drives cause by physiological deficits

ghrelin

hormone produced to stimulate appetite (growlin stomach)

leptin

hormone produced by fat cells that inhibit hunger (last bite)

belongingness

innate human desire to form and sustain human relationships, driving behavior and emotional health

arousal theory

motivation to maintain optimal alertness (increase when bored, decrease when too high)

yerkes-dodson law

arousal causes performance to increase, but after a while will cause a decrease

sensation-seeking theory

motivation is driven by a need to have varied and intense experiences to perform at best

adventure seeking

motivated by desire for challenging experiences involving physical activity with little risk

disinhibition

tendency to seek out experiential thrills by engaging in behavior typically restrained by norms

boredom susceptibility

an individuals intolerance for repetitive or monotonous experiences, causing them to seek exciting experiences

incentive theory

behavior is motivated by desire for external rewards (money, praise, tangible benefits)

self-determination theory

proposes people are motivated by intrinsic and extrinsic motivations

intrinsic motivation

engaging in activities for one’s own sake

extrinsic motivation

engaging in activities due to external rewards or pressures

lewins motivational conflicts theory

psychological struggles individuals face when decision making

approach-approach conflicts

choosing between 2 desirable options

avoidance-avoidance conflicts

choosing between 2 undesirable options

approach-avoidance conflicts

drawn to and repelled by the same option

elictors

stimuli or events triggering an emotional response

arousal comes before emotion

emotions follow bodily arousal

facial-feedback hypothesis

facial expressions influence emotions

arousal & emotion occur simultaneously

arousal and emotion occur simultaneously and independently

arousal + cognitive label = emotion

emotion is the result of physiological interpretation and cognitive labels

broaden & build theory of emotion

positive emotions help us think openly and try new things

universal emotions

certain emotional expressions are recognized and experienced across different cultures

display rules

cultural norms that dictate emotional expression

psychodynamic perspective

personality is shaped by unseen forces and childhood experience

preconscious mind

thoughts/feelings not currently in conscious awareness but can be easily accessed

unconscious mind

memories beyond conscious awareness, significantly influencing thoughts, feelings, behavior

projective tests

tools used to assess personality by eliciting responses revealing preconscious and unconscious mind

ego defense mechanism

unconscious strategies used by ego to protect itself from anxiety and perceived threats

denial

unconsciously refusing to acknowledge reality or facts to protect from uncomfortable truths

displacement

emotional impulses are redirected to a safer substitute

projection

individuals attribute own unacceptable feelings, motives to someone else to deflect criticism

rationalization

individuals justify behaviors in a seemingly logical manner to avoid confronting underlying reasons

reaction formation

individuals suppress unacceptable impulses by displaying opposite behavior

regression

reverting to earlier stages of development when faced with stress

repression

distressing thoughts or feelings are blocked from conscious awareness

sublimation

negatives impulses are channeled to socially acceptable activities

humanistic perspective

study of the whole individual, focused on growth & unconditional positive regard

unconditional positive regard

individuals are always valued & accepted without judgement

self-actualizing theory

innate drive to realize full potential

social-cognitive theory

learning from society around you. personality comes from cognitive processes gained through social learning.

reciprocal determinism

thoughts, emotions, environment influence one another

self-concept

an individual’s perspective of themselves (not always accurate)

self-efficacy

belief in one’s own ability to succeed, influencing how challenges are approached

self-esteem

overall subjective evaluation of personal worth

trait theories

personality is made up of traits that influence thoughts & behavior

big five theory

5 broad facets of personality assessed with a test

personality inventories

standardized tools used to assess personality traits through self-report

factor analysis

statistical method to identify clusters of related factors in a dataset

openness to experience

willingness to engage in new ideas outside of comfort zone

conscientiousness

organized, disciplined, & goal-directed

extraversion

sociable, energetic, preference for social interaction

agreeableness

warmth, kindness, empathy

neuroticism

emotional stability, resilience, calmness (higher score, more emotional)

executive functions

cognitive processes allowing individuals to generate, plan, & carry out critical thinking