Abnormal Psych

Deviance

Behavior, thoughts or feelings are very different from what it is considered normal in a society or culture

Distress

When a person is unhappy, upset, or suffering emotionally

Dysfunction

The person’s behavior mess with their ability to live a normal life

Danger

The person is dangerous to themselves or others

Case Study

Focuses on one person, it’s a detailed description of a person’s life and psychological problems. It describes a person’s history, present circumstances, and symptoms. May describe the person treatment as well

Benefits

• New source of ideas (can give you new ways of thinking about a problem)

• Support for theory (can help prove that a theory works in real life)

• Show the value of therapeutic Techniques (can show how therapy or treatment helps people)

Limitation

• Biased Observer (researcher may see what they want to see, which lead to unfair or one sided results)

• Subjective Evidence (it can be based on personal feelings, not facts, which is hard to prove or trust fully)

• Generalization (one case doesn’t represent everyone which can lead to wrong conclusions)

Correlation Method

A way of studying the relationship between two or more things (called variables) to see if they are connected. It vary from +1.00 to -1.00

Positive Correlation

Both variables go up and down together

Negative Correlation

One variable goes up while the other goes down

No correlation

No clear pattern

Correlation is not causation

Just because two things are related doesn’t mean one causes the other

Benefits

• Helps find relationships (you can see if two variables are connected)

• Useful for making predictions (if two things are related, knowing one can help you guess the other)

• Quick and easy to do ( you don’t need to do an experiments or change anything, you can just collect data and look for patterns)

• Ethical and safe ( you can study things that would be wrong or dangerous to test in an experiment like the existing ones)

Limitations

• Does not show cause and effect ( just because two things are related doesn’t mean one causes the other)

• Third variable (a third thing might be causing both variables)

• Can be misleading (people might wrongly believe that one thing causes the other)

Experimental method

A way of doing research where the researcher controls and changes one variable to see what effect it has on another variable

Benefits

• Show cause and effect (You can prove that one thing causes another)

• Controlled environment (You control the setting to make the test fair)

• Repeatable (Others can repeat the experiment to check the results)

• Accurate results (Less chance of outside things affecting the outcome)

Limitations

• Not always realistic (Lab settings are not like real life)

• Can be unethical (Some things shouldn’t be tested on people)

• Expensive and time-consuming (Experiments can take a lot of time and money)

• Hard to control everything (Other factors might still affect the results)

Confounding Variable

When something that interferes with your experiment and makes it hard to tell what’s really causing the results. Affects both IV and DV

Masked Design AKA Blind Design

The participants doesn’t know if they’re in control or experimental group

Double Masked Design

When neither the participants nor the experimenter know who is in which group (like the treatment group or the control group)

Control

The parts of an experiment that are kept the same for all participants

Random Assignment

Putting people (or things) into different groups by chance, not by choice

Quasi-Experimental Method

A type of research that is similar to an experiment, but does not use random assignment to create groups

• In a quasi-experiment, the groups already exist or are chosen in a non-random way

Benefits

• More practical (Easier to do in real-world settings (like schools or hospitals)

• Ethical (You don’t have to randomly assign people, which can be more fair or safe

• Useful for Studying real groups (Helps study things that can’t be randomly assigned like gender, age, or location)

Limitations

• No random assignment (Groups might be different from the start)

• Less control (Other factors might affect the results)

• Harder to prove cause and effect (You can’t be 100% sure the treatment cased the change)

Institutional Review Board (IBR)

It is a group of people (usually experts in research, ethics, and law) that reviews research studies involving human participants to make sure they are safe, fair, and ethical

What they do?

The IRB reviews research plans before the study begins to ensure:

1. Participants are protected

   • Their rights, safety, and well-being come first.

   • They are not exposed to unnecessary risks.

2. Informed consent is used

   • Participants are clearly told what the study is about, what they’ll do, and any risks involved.

   • They must agree to join the study voluntarily.

3. Privacy is respected

   • Personal information is kept confidential and secure.

4. The study is ethical

   • The research follows rules and guidelines for treating people with respect and fairness.

Biological Model

Focuses on brain structure, chemistry, and genetics. It’s saying that mental disorders are caused by problems in the body, especially the brain and nervous system. It treats abnormal behavior like a physical illness

How Do Biological Theorists Explain Abnormal Behavior?

1. Brain Structure problems

   • Damaged or changed in certain brain areas can affect behavior

2. Neurotransmitter imbalance

   • Neurotransmitters are chemicals that help brain cells communicate

   • Too much or too little can cause problems

3. Genetics

   • Mental illness can run in families

4. Viral infections or illnesses

   • Some mental disorders may be linked to viruses or infections during pregnancy or early life

5. Hormones

   • Hormonal imbalances can affect mood and behavior

Biological Treatments

1. Medication

   • Most common treatment.

   • Examples: Antidepressants, antipsychotics, anti-anxiety drugs.

2. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

   • A small electric current is passed through the brain to treat severe depression.

3. Psychosurgery

   • Rare and only used in extreme cases. Involves surgery on the brain.

4. Brain Stimulation Techniques

   • Newer methods like TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation) or DBS (Deep Brain Stimulation).

Benefits

1. Scientific and Based on Evidence

• The biological model uses tools like brain scans, blood tests, and genetic studies

• This makes it more reliable because it’s based on physical proof, not just opinions or guesses

2. Effective Treatments

   • It has led to medications that help millions of people feel better

   • These treatments can reduce symptoms like sadness, anxiety, or hallucinations

3. Respected in Medicine

   • Doctors and hospitals often use this model because it fits with how they treat physical illnesses

   • It helps mental health be taken more seriously, like any other health problem

4. Helps Reduce Blame

   • If mental illness is caused by the brain or genes, it’s not the person’s fault.

   • This can reduce shame or guilt and help people seek help

Limitation

1. Ignores Life Experiences

• It focuses only on the body and brain, not on emotions, trauma, or relationships

• But many mental health problems are also caused by stress, abuse, or loss

2. Side Effects from Medication

   • Medicines can help, but they often come with unwanted side effects like weight gain, tiredness, or mood swings

   • Some people may need to try many medications before finding one that works

3. Doesn’t Always Cure the Problem

   • Medications often treat the symptoms, not the root cause

   • If the cause is emotional or social, medicine alone might not be enough

4. Reduces People to Biology

• It can make people feel like they are just a brain or a set of chemicals, not a whole person with thoughts, feelings, and a life story

• This can feel cold or impersonal

Psychodynamic Model

• Based on Sigmund Freud’s ideas

• Abnormal behavior comes from unconscious conflicts, often rooted in childhood experiences

• These hidden feelings or memories can cause anxiety, depression, or other issues

Psychodynamic Therapies

1. Psychoanalysis: Talking freely to uncover hidden thoughts

2. Psychodynamic therapy: Shorter and more focused than traditional psychoanalysis

3. Interpersonal Therapy (IPT): Focuses on improving relationships and communication, often used for depression.

Strengths

1. Explores Deep Emotional Issues

• It helps people understand the real reasons behind their thoughts and behaviors, especially those that come from childhood or the unconscious mind.

2. Focuses on the Whole Person

• It looks at the inner world of the person, not just symptoms.

• Encourages self-reflection and personal insight.

3. Long-Term Benefits

• Even though it takes time, it can lead to lasting emotional growth and better relationships.

4. Influential in Psychology

• Many modern therapies (like interpersonal therapy and even parts of CBT) were inspired by psychodynamic ideas.

Limitations

1. Hard to Test Scientifically

• Many ideas (like the unconscious mind or defense mechanisms) are difficult to measure or prove with research.

2. Time-Consuming and Expensive

• Traditional psychoanalysis can take years and requires frequent sessions, which may not be practical for everyone.

3. Focuses Too Much on the Past

• It may spend too much time on childhood and not enough on current problems or solutions.

4. Not Always Effective for All Disorders

• It may not work well for severe mental illnesses like schizophrenia or for people who need quick, structured help.

How Did Freud Explain Normal and Abnormal Functioning?

Freud believed the mind has three parts: Id, Ego, and Superego. These parts work at an unconscious level. Meaning we are not always aware of them.

1. ID: Includes our basic needs. It wants pleasure right away (hunger, comfort, sleep..)

2. Ego: The realistic part that balances the id and the real world. Meaning uses reasoning to decide when and how we can express our desire

3. Superego: The moral part that tells you what is right and wrong

Behavioral Model

People learn behaviors through experience, especially through rewards, punishments, and observation, in other words both normal and abnormal, as something that is learned through interactions with the environment.

How Do Behaviorists Explain Abnormal Functioning?

Behaviorists believe that all behavior is learned, including abnormal behavior. That means mental health problems are not caused by unconscious thoughts or brain chemistry, but by learning experiences, especially from the environment.

1. Classical conditioning

   • Learning through association

   • Classical conditioning is a type of learning where a person or animal learns to connect two things that happen together. This is called association

2. Operant Conditioning

   • Learning through rewards and punishments.

   • This is a type of learning where behavior is shaped by what happens after it—either a reward or a punishment (B.F. Skinner)

     🔁 How It Works:

     • If a behavior is rewarded, you're more likely to do it again.

     • If a behavior is punished, you're less likely to do it again

3. Modeling (Observational Learning)

   • Learning by watching others.

   • This is when a person learns a behavior by observing someone else doing it. You don’t need to be rewarded or punished yourself—you just watch and copy (Bandura)

Behavioral Therapies

Behavioral therapies are based on the idea that abnormal behavior is learned, so it can also be unlearned or replaced with healthier behavior.

Main Types of Behavioral Therapy:

1. Classical Conditioning Techniques

   • Systematic Desensitization: Gradually exposing someone to what they fear while teaching them to stay calm.

   • Flooding: Exposing the person to their fear all at once until the fear goes away.

   • Aversion Therapy: Pairing an unwanted behavior with something unpleasant

2. Operant Conditioning Techniques

   • Positive Reinforcement: Rewarding good behavior to encourage it.

   • Token Economies: Earning tokens for good behavior that can be exchanged for rewards.

   • Behavioral Contracts: Agreements between therapist and client to encourage certain behaviors.

3. Modeling (Observational Learning)

   • Teaching new behaviors by having the person watch and imitate someone else.

Strengths

1. Scientific and Measurable

   • Focuses on observable behavior, which makes it easy to study and test

2. Effective for Specific Problems

   • Works well for phobias, addictions, and habits.

   • Often used in schools, hospitals, and therapy programs

3. Short-Term and Goal-Oriented

   • Focuses on changing behavior quickly, not digging into the past

4. Clear Techniques

   • Uses structured methods like rewards, exposure, and practice

Limitations

1. Ignores Thoughts and Feelings

   • Doesn’t look at what people think or feel inside, which can be important for healing.=

2. May Not Address Root Causes

   • Focuses on changing behavior, but not always why the behavior started

3. Can Feel Too Mechanical

   • Some people feel like they’re being “trained” rather than understood

4. Not Ideal for Complex Disorders

   • It may not be enough for deep emotional issues like trauma or personality disorders

Cognitive Model

Explain mental health problems by looking at what people do and their behavior. It focuses on how a person’s thoughts affect their feelings and behaviors. It’s based on the idea that mental health problems come from negative or distorted thinking, not just from outside events or learned behaviors

How Do Cognitive Theorists Explain Abnormal Functioning?

They believe that mental health problems often come from negative or incorrect thinking. If someone keeps thinking in a harmful way (like “I’m a failure” or “No one likes me”), it can lead to feeling sad, anxious, or stressed. Cognitive theorists say that by changing those thoughts, people can start to feel better and function more normally

Cognitive Therapies

1. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Helps you notice your negative thoughts, like “I’m not good enough,” and teaches you how to change them into more helpful ones, like “I can try my best.” It also helps you change your actions to feel better

2. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT): Helps you find unrealistic or extreme beliefs, like “I must be perfect,” and teaches you to replace them with more realistic and kind thoughts, like “It’s okay to make mistakes

3. Cognitive Therapy: This therapy mixes thinking work with mindfulness (being calm and aware of the present moment). It helps you notice your thoughts without judging them, so you don’t get stuck in sadness or worry

4. Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT): This is like CBT, but it focuses more on changing the way you think about yourself, the world, and the future. It helps you see things in a more balanced and fair way

Benefits

• It helps people understand how thoughts affect feelings and actions

• It’s been proven to work for many problems like depression and anxiety

• It gives people tools to change their thinking and feel better

Limitation

• It may not work for everyone — some people need other kinds of help too

• It focuses a lot on thinking, but sometimes emotions or past trauma are more important

• It might seem too “logical” for people who are feeling very emotional or overwhelmed

Humanistic-Existential Model

This model is about understanding people as whole human beings. It focuses on things like:

• Personal growth

• Free will (your ability to make choices)

• Finding meaning in life

• Being true to yourself

It says that people are basically good and want to live happy, meaningful lives, but sometimes they get stuck or feel lost.

Rogers’s Humanistic Theory

Carl Rogers believed that every person has a natural desire to grow, be happy, and become their best self. He called this the “actualizing tendency.” He thought that people are basically good and can heal and grow if they are in the right environment

What Is Rogers’s Therapy Like?

His therapy is called Person-Centered Therapy (also called Client-Centered Therapy). It’s a type of talk therapy where the therapist:

• Listens without judging (genuineness, the therapist is honest and real with you)

• Shows real care and understanding (empathy, the therapist tries to deeply understand how you feel)

• Accepts the person just as they are (conditions positive regards)

This helps the person feel safe, respected, and free to explore their true thoughts and feelings.

Benefits

1. Focuses on the Whole Person – It looks at your feelings, choices, and personal growth, not just your problems

2. Very Respectful – It treats people with kindness, respect, and dignity

3. Encourages Self-Understanding – Helps people find meaning and purpose in life

4. Positive View of Humans – Believes people are naturally good and can grow

Limitations

1. Not Very Scientific – It’s hard to measure things like “self-actualization” or “meaning in life.”

2. May Not Work for Severe Mental Illness – It might not be enough for people with serious conditions like schizophrenia

3. Too Idealistic – Some say it focuses too much on personal growth and not enough on real-life problems

4. Less Structured – It doesn’t always give clear steps or tools like other therapies (e.g., CBT)

Sociocultural Model

A person’s mental health is strongly affected by their social and cultural environment

How Do Family-Social Theorists Explain Abnormal Functioning?

They believe that mental health problems can come from a person’s relationships and social life, especially their family, friends, and community

They say that if someone:

• Has a difficult family life (like lots of fighting or no support),

• Feels lonely or rejected by others,

• Faces bullying, stress, or pressure from society,

…then that person might start to feel anxious, depressed, or act in unhealthy ways

Family-Social Treatments

• Family therapy – to improve how family members talk and support each other

• Group therapy – to help people connect with others and feel less alone

• Community support – to help people feel included and valued in society

How Do Multicultural Theorists Explain Abnormal Functioning?

They say that mental health issues can happen when:

• A person feels disrespected or excluded because of their culture or identity.

• They face racism, sexism, or unfair treatment.

• Their values or traditions are not accepted or understood by others.

• They feel pressure to fit in with a different culture.

  They say that mental health issues can happen when:

  • A person feels disrespected or excluded because of their culture or identity

  • They face racism, sexism, or unfair treatment

  • Their values or traditions are not accepted or understood by others

  • They feel pressure to fit in with a different culture

Multicultural Treatments

Therapist:

• Learns about the person’s culture, religion, language, and values

• Understands how racism, discrimination, or cultural stress may affect the person

• Adjusts the therapy to make the person feel safe, respected, and understood

Benefits

1. Looks at the Whole Picture – It doesn’t just focus on the person’s mind, but also on their family, culture, and society

2. Explains Social Causes – It helps us understand how things like poverty, racism, or bullying can affect mental health

3. Encourages Community Support – It promotes group therapy, family therapy, and community programs

4. Culturally Sensitive – It respects different cultures and backgrounds

Limitations

1. Hard to Measure – Social and cultural factors are not easy to test or measure scientifically

2. May Overlook Personal Factors – It might not focus enough on the person’s own thoughts, biology, or emotions

3. Not a One-Size-Fits-All – People from the same culture can still have very different experiences

4. Less Focus on Individual Therapy – It may not always offer clear steps for personal treatment like other models (e.g., CBT)

Clinical Assessment: How and Why Does the Client Behave Abnormally?

1. Characteristics of assessment tools, including:

   • Reliability: The method give the same results every time

   • Validity: The tool/method is measuring what it’s supposed to measure (accurate and meaningful results)

Clinical interviews

A clinical interview is a conversation between a therapist (or psychologist) and a client. The goal is to:

• Learn about the person’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior

• Understand their problems and history

• Help decide what kind of treatment might work best

Benefits

1. Personal – The therapist gets to know the person directly

2. Flexible – The therapist can ask different questions based on the person’s answers

3. Detailed – It gives a lot of information about the person’s life and emotions

Limitations

1. Bias – The therapist might make judgments based on their own opinions

2. Inaccurate Answers – The person might forget things or not tell the full truth

3. Not Always Reliable – Different therapists might understand the same answers in different ways

4. Takes Time – It can take a while to get all the needed information

Clinical tests

Clinical tests are tools used by psychologists to learn more about a person’s mental health. These tests help find out what someone is thinking, feeling, or how their brain is working

Projective Tests

• These are tests where people are shown pictures or vague images and asked to describe what they see

• The idea is that people will project their inner thoughts or feelings onto the image

• Examples: Rorschach Inkblot Test (blot of ink) and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (pictures of people in situations)

✅ Good for: Exploring deep emotions
❌ Limit: Hard to measure or prove if results are accurate

Personality Inventories

• These are questionnaires with many statements or questions

• People answer how much they agree or how often they feel a certain way

• Examples:

  • MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)

  • Beck Depression Inventory

✅ Good for: Getting clear, structured information
❌ Limit: People might not answer honestly

Neuropsychological Tests

• These tests check how well the brain is working

• They look at things like memory, attention, problem-solving, and language

• Examples:

  • Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test

  • Trail Making Test

✅ Good for: Finding brain-related problems (like after a head injury)
❌ Limit: Can take time and may need special training to give

Clinical observations

Clinical observation is when a therapist or psychologist watches a person’s behavior to learn more about their mental health. Instead of just asking questions or giving tests, they observe how the person acts in real life or in a therapy setting

Types of Clinical Observation

1. Naturalistic Observation – Watching someone in their normal environment (like at home or school)

2. Analog Observation – Watching someone in a controlled setting (like a therapy room)

3. Self-Monitoring – The person watches and records their own behavior (like tracking moods or habits)

Benefits:

• Shows real behavior, not just what the person says

• Helps spot problems that the person might not notice

❌ Limitations:

• People might act differently when they know they’re being watched

• Observers can make mistakes or be biased

• It doesn’t always explain why the behavior is happening

DSM-5

DSM-5 stands for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition. It’s like a big guidebook that mental health professionals use to:

• Identify mental disorders

• Describe symptoms

• Decide on a diagnosis

It includes conditions like depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, ADHD, and many more

Strengths of the DSM-5 (Why It Can Be Effective)

1. Standardized System – It gives mental health professionals a common language to describe and diagnose mental disorders

2. Detailed Descriptions – It includes clear criteria for each disorder (like symptoms, how long they last, etc.)

3. Helps with Treatment – Once a diagnosis is made, it helps guide the right kind of therapy or medication

Reliability of the DSM-5

• Reliability means: Do different doctors give the same diagnosis for the same person?

• DSM-5 has improved reliability compared to older versions, but it’s not perfect

• Sometimes, two professionals might still give different diagnoses for the same symptoms

Validity of the DSM-5

Validity means: Does the diagnosis really match the person’s actual problem?

• Some diagnoses in the DSM-5 are very valid (like depression or PTSD)

• But others are less clear, and some critics say the DSM focuses too much on labels instead of the person’s full experience

Limitations of the DSM-5

1. Cultural Bias – It may not fully fit people from different cultures or backgrounds

2. Overdiagnosis – Some say it can lead to labeling normal behavior as a disorder

3. Doesn’t Explain Causes – It describes symptoms, but doesn’t always explain why the disorder happens

Can Diagnosis and Labeling Cause Harm?

Yes, diagnosis and labeling in mental health can sometimes cause harm, even though they are often helpful. Here’s a simple explanation

Possible Harms of Diagnosis and Labeling:

1. Stigma – People might feel ashamed or embarrassed about their diagnosis, or others might treat them differently

2. Self-Image – A person might start to believe they are “broken” or “less than” because of the label

3. Misdiagnosis – If the diagnosis is wrong, the person might get the wrong treatment

4. Overgeneralization – People might think the label explains everything about the person, when really, everyone is unique

5. Discrimination – In some cases, people with a mental health label might face unfair treatment at work, school, or in relationships

Empirically Supported Treatment

An Empirically Supported Treatment is a type of therapy or treatment that has been tested through scientific research and shown to actually work for certain mental health problems

3 specific statistics about the effectiveness of medical treatments (check this from the slides AKA not sure if it’s correct)

1. Only 1 in 10 treatments is backed by high-quality evidence

• A study of 154 medical treatments found that only 9.9% were supported by high-quality scientific evidence. This means most treatments don’t have strong proof that they work well in real-world conditions

2. About 40% of treatments are likely to be effective

• Even though few treatments have strong evidence, other studies suggest that around 40% of treatments are probably effective, meaning they seem to help, but the proof isn’t as strong

3. 22% of treatments are supported by very low-quality evidence

• In the same study, 22% of treatments were backed by very low-quality evidence, meaning we can’t be confident they work at all

Common Factors in Therapy (check the slides)

1. Therapeutic Relationship (30%)

   • The quality of the relationship between the therapist and the client is one of the strongest predictors of success. This includes trust, empathy, and collaboration

2. Client Factors / Extra-Therapeutic Factors (40%)

   • These are things outside of therapy that affect progress, like the client’s motivation, support system, and life circumstances

3. Expectancy / Placebo Effect (15%)

   • A client’s belief that therapy will help can actually lead to improvement. Just having hope and expecting change can make a big difference

4. Therapeutic Techniques (15%)

   • The specific methods or tools used (like CBT, EMDR, etc.) do matter, but they account for a smaller part of the overall effectiveness compared to the other factors

5. Empathy

   • When therapists show genuine understanding and care, clients feel safer and more open, which helps healing

6. Genuineness and Warmth

   • Therapists who are authentic and kind help clients feel more connected and supported

7. Unconditional Positive Regard

   • This means the therapist accepts the client without judgment, which builds trust and encourages openness