Year 12 ATAR Psychology: Unit 2

Everything is on here related to DSHS's psychology syllabus for Unit 2, other than SIS and the He et al study :)

Motivation

The internal or external forces which drive an individual to exert physical and mental effort to perform an action or task

4 Sources of Motivation + Examples

1. Physiological

   • Hunger, thirst, or sleep

2. Cognition

   • Perceptions, beliefs, or expectations

3. Emotions

   • Panic, fear, or love

4. Social

   • Reactions from peers, community, or family

Amotivation

A lack or absence of drive to engage in tasks or complete goals

Extrinsic Motivation

An external incentive to engage in a specific activity, with motivation arising from the expectation of a reward

Intrinsic Motivation

An internal incentive to engage in a particular activity coming from the pleasure of the activity itself

Psychological Needs for Motivation

• Autonomy: The need to feel self-governed and independent

• Competence: The need to have sufficient skills in dealing with the environment

• Relatedness: The desire for attachment and the need for close and affectionate relationships with others

4 Types of Extrinsic Motivation

• External Regulation

• Introjection Regulation

• Identification

• Integration Regulation

Extrinsic Motivation: External Regulation

Behaviours are displayed to satisfy an external demand or obtain an externally set reward. The least autonomous form of extrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic Motivation: Introjection Regulation

People perform behaviours in compliance with external pressure in order to avoid the feelings of guilt and anxiety associated with being unable to perform the task. More autonomous, but external forces are still very controlling.

Extrinsic Motivation: Identification

The person identifies with the personal importance of a task. They may not enjoy it but they have an end goal which requires this behaviour. Eg. exercising not because you enjoy it but because you understand it is important to be healthy.

Extrinsic Motivation: Integration Regulation

The person fully accepts and integrates that the extrinsic benefits fully allign with their goals, values, and beliefs. It is the most autonomous form of extrinsic motivation and shares many qualities with intrinsic motivation, however the behaviour is still motivated by its outcome.

Self-Determination

Refers to a person’s own ability to manage themselves, to make confident choices, and to think on their own.

Self-Determination Theory: Theorists and Date

Deci and Ryan (1985)

Self-Determination Theory

Focusses on the relatioonship between extrinsic forces acting on a person and the intrinsic motives and needs of human beings.

Self-Determination Theory: 2 Strengths

• It has a high explanatory power, taking into account both internal (motives / goals) and external (relationships / context) factors when explaining motivation

• Has universal applicability - applies to vast populations, transcending cultural boundaries

Self-Determination Theory: 2 Limitations

• Low predictive power

• Some psychologists have argued there may be other factors, i.e. personality, culture, or genetics, which influence motivation

Self-Determination Theory: Applications

• Education: encourage learning through encouragement and autonomy in assessments, fostering a social environment

• Workplace: providing autonomy to workers to complete work at their own pace and fostering a social environment for relatedness

• Parenting: promoting healthy development by encouraging exploration through autonomy and fostering positive relationships + high self-esteem

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Hierarchy

Physiological → Safety → Love and Belongingness → Esteem → Self-Actualisation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological + 3 Examples

Needs which are vital for survival.

Can include food, shelter, and clothing.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Security and Safety Needs + 3 Examples

The need for order and control in ones life.

Can include financial security, wellness security, and security from accidents / injury.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Love and Belongingness + 3 Examples

The need for attachment and emotional relationships as well as feeling acceptance among others.

Can include romance, friendship, and finding community.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Esteem + 3 Examples

The need for people to feel that they - and their accomplishments - are recognised, appreciated, and respected by others, as well as feeling like their actions make a contribution to the world.

Participation in professional activities, personal hobbies, and academic achievements can contribute to esteem.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Self-Actualisation + 3 Examples

The desire to grow as a person and become the best possible version of oneself through creative expression, personal improvement, or exploring ones identity.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Deficiency Needs

Needs which arise due to deprivation of an essential stimulus. Satisfying these needs is important for avoiding potential consequences, like loneliness or starvation.

Physiological, safety, love, and esteem are all deficiency needs.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Growth Needs

Needs which stem not from a lack of something, but rather out of a desire to develop as a person.

Maslow’s Expanded Hierarchy of Needs: Hierarchy

Physiological → Safety → Love and Belongingness → Esteem → Cognitive → Aesthetic → Self Actualisation → Transcendence

Maslow’s Expanded Hierarchy of Needs: Cognitive + 3 Examples

The need for knowledge, exploration, and an enriched understanding of the world.

Examples of cognitive needs can include the need to solve problems, to learn new skills, or to fulfill curiosity.

Maslow’s Expanded Hierarchy of Needs: Aesthetic + 3 Examples

The need to appreciate beauty and form.

This can be satisfied through art, nature, or architecture.

Maslow’s Expanded Hierarchy of Needs: Transcendence + 3 Examples

The need for one to connect with something beyond themselves.

This need can be fulfilled through spiritual enlightenment / religion, altruism, or ‘being a part of something greater’

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: 2 Strengths

• It is simple, orderly, and intuitive - many can apply it to their own personal experiences without much thought

• The theory was a breakthrough idea which has inspired much research into the future, whilst remaining relevant to this day

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: 3 Weaknesses

• Research suggests that needs do not function in a hierarchal order, and that this orderly fashion is an oversimplification of human behaviour and priorities

• Aspects of the theory are difficult to test and measure, particularly self-actualisation

• The theory was not based on objective empirical research - he focussed on biographical analysis and personal observations, making it a rather unscientific theory based on subjective analysis

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: 3 Applications

• Business: ensuring employee’s basic needs are met to ensure they can remain productive

• Education: safety and belongingness needs can be addressed by making the student feel safe and appreciated, and esteem needs can be addressed by complimenting them, in order to foster a more productive learning environment

• General relationships: understanding the love and belongingness need can allow us to foster stronger relationships with friends and family

Wellbeing

A state of happiness and contentment with low levels of distress, good physical / mental health, and a good outlook / quality of life.

Subjective Wellbeing: Theorist + Date

Diener, 1984

Subjective Wellbeing: Definition

An individuals personal evaluation of their own levels of happiness and life satisfaction.

Subjective Wellbeing: Two main components

Affective balance and life satisfaction

Subjective Wellbeing: Affective Balance

Affect is the outward expression and experience of emotion, with affective balance referring to the balance between positive and negative emotions / positive and negative affect.

Subjective Wellbeing: Positive Affect

The internal feeling state that is achieved when a goal is met, a source of threat is avoided, or when the individual is pleased with the current state of affairs.

The experience of this state is called possitive affectivity.

Subjective Wellbeing: Negative Affect

The internal feeling state that occurs when an individual has failed to achieve a goal, to avoid a threat, or is not pleased with the current state of affairs.

The experience of this state is called negative affectivity.

Subjective Wellbeing: Life Satisfaction

Refers to how satisfied or content an individual is with their life as a whole. It is a cognitive assessment of all aspects of ones life, including their career, relationships, finances, etc.

Subjective Wellbeing: 2 Strengths

• Understands that different people have different standards for happiness and that there is no one thing that universally provides happiness

• The theory has cultural universality - can easily be applied to different cultures

Subjective Wellbeing: 2 Limitations

• The self-report questionnaires used to examine subjective wellbeing may be susceptible to demand characteristics, with participants inflating their scores for social desirability reasons

• External factors that could potentially impact wellbeing are not focussed on - only considers internal factors

Subjective Wellbeing: 1 Application

Policy makers can employ subjective wellbeing surveys to gague what needs to change within a particular community, and can gague wellbeing before and after a policy change to measure its impact.

Psychological Wellbeing Theory: Theorist and Date

Ryff, 1989

Psychological Wellbeing Theory: Self-Acceptance

The individual accepting their personal strengths, weaknesses, past decisions and behaviours as part of themselves.

People with high self-acceptance likely understand themselves better and have greater self-esteem

Psychological Wellbeing Theory: Environmental Mastery

Related to the person’s ability to take advantage of and manipulate opportunities and demands of surroundings to satisfy capacity and needs.

People with high environmental mastery are aware of the various environmental factors, knowing how to take advantage of them.

Psychological Wellbeing Theory: Autonomy

Refers to an individuals internal feelings of control and their ability to manage themselves without the input of others.

People with high autonomy are able to maintain personal indpendence and regulate their behaviour independent of external compulsions.

Psychological Wellbeing Theory: Personal Growth

Involves a person continually developing and maintaining oneself, using past and present experiences as a reference.

People with high personal growth improve their self knowledge and acknowledge their weaknesses whilst developing emotional intelligence.

Psychological Wellbeing Theory: Positive Social Relations

Involves relations to others and our ability to create genuine relationships of quality, trust, and closeness.

Psychological Wellbeing Theory: Life Purpose

Ensuring that ones life is directed towards something, and feeling as if ones life has had meaning in the past and present and will have meaning in the future.

People with high life purpose are goal oriented with dreams they are pursuing.

Psychological Wellbeing Theory: 2 Strengths

• The model is more detailed than previous theories, encompassing more facets of wellbeing

• The theory is supported by empirical evidence - the psychological wellbeing scale - increasing its reliability and validity

Psychological Wellbeing Theory: 2 Limitations

• Some factors that influence wellbeing, such as some social / economic factors, are not accounted for in the theory

• There is less of a focus on negative affect and the ways in which we overcome adversity / cope with hardship

Psychological Wellbeing Theory: 1 Application

The psychological wellbeing theory has been applied to demonstrate how sleep impacts individual wellbeing, with tests outlining a correlation between poor sleep and poor wellbeing.

Stress as defined by Selye

A non-specific (experienced differently by others) response to internal or external stressors. It is a physical response of the body to physical / psychological demands. It is heavily subjective.

Distress (Selye)

A negative psychological response to a stressor percieved to be a threat, as indicated by the presence of negative psychological states such as anger or irritability whilst disrupting our ability to function. Prolonged distress has major impacts on physical / mental health.

Eustress (Selye)

A positive psychological state felt due to stressors, leading to positive feelings such as excitement / motivation. Linked to opportunities for personal growth, such as a new job / marriage, etc.

Stressors (Seyle)

An external or internal experience which produces a non-specific psychological response. Whether the stressor produces distress or eustress depends on personal context of the individual and their interpretation of the stressor.

Internal Stressor + Example (Seyle)

Originate from within the individual - personal mental issues or our interpretation of physical pain. Feeling threatened by someone based off of our own prejudice is an internal stressor as it is based on our own emotions and interpretations.

External Stressor (Seyle)

Originate from outside the individual - from situations and events in the environment. Environment, social, and cultural stressors are external. Being explicitly threatened by someone is an external stressor as it is an event originating from factors outside our own mind or body.

Psychological Stressors (Seyle)

Internal factors (thoughts, feelings, behaviours) that can influence our experience of stress. Can include worry, anxiety, or pessimism.

Environmental Stressors (Seyle)

Stimuli originating externally from the environment which influence stress. Can include noise, bright light, or natural disasters.

Social Stressors (Selye)

Behaviours and situations relating to the actions of other individuals that cause physical / psychological strain. Could involve arguing with a loved one, being threatened, or an important relationship ending.

Cultural Stressor (Selye)

Stress originating from encountering someone with a differing culture / lifestyle. Could involve challenging of personal morals. Examples include being left out of a group with differing values, being discriminated against, or adjusting to a new culture.

Characteristics of the Stressor: Nature

The nature of a particular stressor refers to the ability of an iindividual to control or influence the situation. Certain stressors may be more difficult to control by nature.

Nature of Stressor: Importance

Stressors relating to important aspects of an individuals life tend to cause higher levels of stress. The death of a loved one or the diagnosis of a fatal disease are incredibly important and could lead to higher stress.

Nature of Stressor: Predictability

Events that are unpredictable, unanticipated, or uncontrollable will lead to higher levels of stress stemming from feelings of helplessness and frustration.

A natural disaster cannot be anticipated and therefore will lead to higher stress, whereas a test you have known about for a few months will lead to lower stress.

Nature of Stressor: Number of Stressors

Encountering multiple stressors simultaneously can compound the effects of the individual stressor and lead to feelings of being overwhelmed. It is harder to deal with individual stressors when there are a large number to focus on.

Characteristics of Stressors: Duration

The length of time a stressor persists in an individuals life.

Duration of Stressors: Acute Stressors

Short-term stressors which can be handled relatively quickly. They activate immediate responses to stress and usually produce less overall stress.

Duration of Stressors: Chronic Stressors

Long-term stressors existing in the form of ongoing demands, pressures, or worries. These can have cumulative impacts on an individual, impacting various aspects of life including physical / mental health, social relationships, etc.

Characteristics of Stressors: Strength

The magnitude / intensity of a stressor, and the impact it has on an individual. Strength can be influenced by the personal characteristics of the individual and their own values.

General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye)

The typical response pattern of the body, according to Selye, in reference to resistance to stress over time. The GAS model is used to describe the physiological and psychological changes the body goes through when experiencing any form of stressor.

GAS Model: Alarm Stage

The initial response to a stressor, found in the form of a general defensive reaction. It is split into two substages: shock and counter shock.

GAS Model: Alarm Stage - Shock

The shock stage takes place during or after the stressor. Resistance to stress drops below normal levels and the body acts as if injured.

The physical effects of shock also decrease our physical capacity for dealing with stress, with blood temp / pressure dropping, loss of muscle tone, and the release of adrenaline into the blood stream.

GAS Model: Alarm - Counter Shock

The sympathetic nervous system is activated and the capacity of the individual to deal with stress begins to increase in preparation for the resistance stage.

GAS Model: Resistance (No Stressor)

If the stressor is no longer present or if it is overcome the parasympathetic nervous system is engaged to return the body to natural states of homeostasis

GAS Model: Resistance (Coping with Stressor)

When the stressor remains after alarm stage, the body will not receive a signal to return to regular functioning and will attempt to adapt to this stress. Psychological arousal increases drastically and the body pushes itself to meet an equilibrium. The immune system is suppressed, leaving the body more susceptible to wear and tear.

GAS Model: Exhaustion

Occurs when the stressor is severe and applied for a significant amount of time, with the body being unable to adapt + return to normal levels. The body’s physical, emotional, and mental recourses completely deplete and there is no longer any capacity to cope with stress.

Social Readjustment Scale: Theorists and Date

Holmes and Rahe, 1967

Social Readjustment Scale: Definition

A self-report measure that measures the amount of stress experienced by an individual and their likelihood of developing a stress-related disease.

Social Readjustment Scale: Life-Changing Units (LCUs)

Represents the total stress score associated with life events. They differ according to life experiences and expected stress levels.

Social Readjustment Scale: Scale Values and Meaning

• <150: Relatively low amount of change and a low susceptibility to stress-induced health issues

• 150-300: Around a 50% chance of health issues within the next 2 years

• 300: 80% chance of health issues within the next 2 years

Social Readjustment Scale: 2 Strengths

• Research on the scale consistently demonstrates an association with stress levels from the scale and physical illnesses, showing the study has high validity

• The study had a massive sample size of 5,000 people, meaning the scale has heightened reliability

Social Readjustment Scale: 2 Limitations

• The study does not account for individual differences - some items may be considered ambiguous or not representative of how much stress it would generate for the individual

• Despite its large sample size, it’s generalisability has been questioned because the sample was constructed of a predominantly Western audience - some things may be considered stressful in other cultures that aren’t in Western ones

Social Readjustment Scale: Application

Other major studies have employed the SRS to assess the relationship between stress and specific scenarios.

In one case it was used to assess the relationship between stress and suicide attempts, and another used it to test the relationship between stress and binge eating.

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: Theorists and Date

Lazarus and Folkmann, 1984

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: Transaction and Appraisal

The Transaction: an encounter between the individual and their environment

Appraisal: The individual’s subjective evaluation of the relevance of the stressor to their wellbeing, as well as their ability to cope with it - the stress response depends on this

Factors that influence our response to stress according to Lazarus:

• Our prior experience with the stressor

• Our individual motivation

• Self-esteem

• Perception of control over the situation

• Our overall life satisfaction

Transactional Model of Stress: Primary Apprailsal Model (Decompiled)

Stressor → Apprailsal (“Do I have to deal with this? What is at stake? Could this potentially benefit me?”) → Either irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful → stressful into harm / loss, threat, or challenge → all three into secondary appraisal

Transactional Model of Stress: Secondary Appraisal

Primary appraisal model → Secondary appraisal (“What can be done about it? How can I personally deal with this? What / who can I use to help me?”) → if coping recourses are adequate, reduced stress / if coping recourses are inadequate, stress occurs

Types of Stress According to Lazarus: Harm

When something bad has already happened, like a significant loss.

Types of Stress According to Lazarus: Threat

The expectation that something bad is going to happen soon.

Types of Stress According to Lazarus: Challenge

When one feels they can handle the current situation / stressor - similar to eustress

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: Adaptive Coping

Positive methods of dealing with stress which empower you to change or amend a stressful situation or adjust your emotional response to it.

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: Maladaptive Coping

Negative ways of dealing with stress. These methods may temporarily distract you from your source of stress but the source of stress is not actually dealt with, leading to long-term psychological / physiological issues.

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: Problem-Focussed Coping

Applicable when you have a high degree of control over the stressful situation. Involves attempts to change or elimenate the source of stress.

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: Emotion-Based Coping

Applicable when you have no control over the stressful situation. Involves strategies which can help moderate stress without amending the situation itself.

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: 2 Strengths

• Has high explanatory power - takes into account individual differences and why two people might interpret the same stressor differently

• Can be applied to a vast number of scenarios and contexts

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: 2 Limitations

• Difficult to test through empirical research due to the subjective nature of the theory

• Primary and secondary appraisals can often interact / occur simultaneously, making it difficult to isolate them in an experimental environment

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: Application

Can be used to understand why some people respond with extreme stress and rage during traffic jams, whilst others may respond with simple boredom or calm.