Research Methods test #1

Errors in Reasoning

Overgeneralization

selective observation

inaccurate observation

illogical reasoning

resistance to change

overgeneralization

an error in reasoning that occurs when we conclude that what we have observed or know to be true for a subset of cases holds true for the entire set

selective observation

observations chosen becuase they are in accord with preferences or beliefs of the observer

innacurate observation

observations based on faulty perceptions of empirical reality

illogical reasoning

prematurely jumping to conclusions and arguing on the basis of invalid assumptions

resistance to change

reluctance to change ideas in light of new information, due to ego-based commitments, excessive devotion to tradition, or uncritical argeement with authorites

Quantitative methods

(numbers) seek to obtain information about the social world that is in, or can be converted to, numeric form

Qualitative methods

(text, pictures) attempt to collect information about the social world that cannot be readily converted to numeric form

Four purposes of social research

descriptive

explanatory

exploratory

evalution

descriptive research

simply describes a social situation

Explanatory research

seeks to identify explanations (causes) for, or relationships between, social phenomena

exploratory research

Explores a new or understudied research

problem; seeks to find out how people get along

in the setting under investigation.

Evaluation research

Seeks to determine if a particular program or

intervention “works”

Theory

a logically interrelated set of propostions about empirical reality

Hypothesis

states a relationship between two or more variable. it suggests that one variable affect the other. it states whether the association is negative or positive

Independent variable

a variabale that is hypothesized to cause, or lead to, variation in another variable

Dependent variable

a variable that is hypothesized to vary depending on the influence of another variable

direction of association

a pattern in a relationship between two variables. the direction of association can be either positive or negative

Deductive research

starts with a social theory and/or literature review and then test some of its implications with data. It is most often used in quantitative methods

Inductive research

starts first with collecting the data and then developing a theory that explains patterns in the data. It is most often used in qualitive methods

Operationalization

a process of turning an abstract concept into a clearly measured variable. This variable is then measured by a specific indicator

conceptualization

the process of developing a more or less precise meaning of a concept for the purpose of research. Specifying what we meant by a term.

unit of analysis

the entites being studied, whose behavior is to be understood

Generalizability

the type of validity that is achieved when a conclusion holds true for the population, group, or groups that we say it does, given the conditions that we specify

measurement validity

the type of validity that is achieved when a measure measures what is presumed to measure

measurement reliability

operation should producing consistent answers

Criteria for casuality

empirical association

nonspuriousness

causal ordering

cross-sectional

do a survey and ask respondents at one point in time

longitudional

do a survey and ask resondents over time

types of measurement validity

face validity

content validity

criterion validity

construct validity

face validity

the type of validity that exists when an inspection of items used to measure a concept suggests that they are appropiate on their face

content validity

evalutes how well an instrument (like a test) covers all relevant parts of the constuct/concept it aims to measure

criterion validity

the type of validity that is established by comparing the scores obtained on the measure being validated to those obtained with a more direct or already validated measure of the same phenomenon

construct validty

measures how well something is measured in comparison with other measures as specified by the theory

methods are most frequently used in research in criminolgy and cj article

most empirical articles are on individual level analysis and survet is the primary mode of data

race and preceptions of police misconduct article

group position model and minorites are more likely to view police as a dominant group