Biotechnology

Sanger Method

Keeps copying a dna strand and then randomly adds a fluorescent base pair until all lengths of the dna have the same fluorescent ending - lastly, it sequences the sizes based on electrophoresis and reads fluorescence (colour coded) at each consequent base pair.

NGS

Anything newer than that - DNA cut into small pieces and sequenced simultaneously, then matched with a template strand of DNA
Something to do with a library and having many genomes

PCR

Makes many copies of DNA
Denaturation - Breaks the DNA bonds
Annealing - Primers show where to start
Elongation - Polymerase adds strands

STR

Junk dna sections with repeating sections - the number of repeating sections in an STR can be used to match people's DNA - CODIS is the name for the site of the STR repeats

Chance to have matching CODIS Sites

1/10

How many CODIS Sites are there

13

RFLP

Restriction fragment length polymorphism is using banding patterns from gel electrophoresis to find the length of DNA in each suspect - if they match, it means the DNA was cut at the same lengths by restriction enzymes

Genomics

Study of the Human Genome

Proteomics

Study of protein structure and function

History of Genomics

1967 – first genome sequence of a RNA bacteriophage
1977 – first genome sequence of a DNA bacteriophage
1995 – first bacterial genome
1995 – first eukaryotic genome
2000 – first draft of the human genome
2001 – first plant genome
2007 – first individual human genome sequence
2018 – the genomes of thousands of organisms have been sequenced

Competitors in the Human Genome Project

USA vs. Celera

How many GB is the genome

100 GB

How do Vaccines Work

Expose you to some form of the disease -
Protein or sugar
Dead or inactivated form
Toxin
Weakened pathogen
mRNA for the spike protein in COVID

Who spread the vaccine causes autism rumour?
Andrew Wakefield

Gene therapy vs. Genetic Engineering

Gene therapy corrects, gene engineering enhances

Gene addition

AAV virus carries instructions for a correct gene into the cell - Takes the flanking regions for a gene of interest and swaps them

Gene silencing

A protein blocks the gene to stop it from making mRNA
Epigenetics - changes gene expression outside of the DNA code
Histone Proteins - adding chemical groups to proteins or to DNA prevents transcription

Gene Editing

CRISPR - Originally a bacteria's defence mechanism
Guide RNA matches the gene they want to edit
Snips the DNA at the desired spot
Uses a template DNA strand to guide DNA rebuilding

Recombinant DNA

Enzymes cut and paste DNaa together and they are copied into other cells (GFP)

Stem Cells

Totipotent - can differentiate into all cells
Pluripotent - Can be differentiated into many cells
Multipotent - Adult stem cells
Unipotent - Fully differentiated cells
Can increase lifespan
Has the ability to differentiate into many cells - tissue repair

Superbug

Antibiotic resistant bacteria

Charge of DNA

Negative

How does Electrophoresis Work?

Current is ran through a gel, and the DNA travels towards the positive electrode - Small ones will move faster than slow ones

STR shorthand

[STR]_n

How many nucleotides long is the sequence for the guiding region of the SGRNA?

20 nucleotides long

How far is cutting relative to PAM

3 basepairs towards the 5' direction