Modules 6-9: Early China, Americas, Persia & Greece

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from Early China, the pre-Columbian Americas, and the Persian–Greek world (Modules 6-9).

Yellow River (Huang He)

A major river in northern China, whose annual floods deposited fertile loess silt. This deposition was critical for nurturing early agriculture and the rise of ancient Chinese urbanization and civilization along its banks.

Yangtze River

A prominent river in southern China, creating incredibly fertile lands along its basin. These rich agricultural areas were essential in sustaining the growth and prosperity of early Chinese civilization, complementing the developments in the north.

Mandate of Heaven

A pivotal Chinese political and religious doctrine. It posits that legitimate rulers govern with the approval of cosmic or divine forces. Conversely, if a ruler loses this 'mandate' through misrule or injustice, it justifies rebellion and the establishment of a new dynasty.

Shang Dynasty

One of the earliest verifiable Chinese dynasties (approximately 1600 to 1046 BCE). It is historically significant for its advanced bronze metallurgy, producing intricate ritual vessels and weaponry, and for its use of oracle bones for divination, representing the earliest form of Chinese writing.

Oracle Bones

Animal bones (often shoulder blades of oxen) and turtle plastrons used by priests during the Shang Dynasty for pyromancy (divination by fire). Questions about future events were carved onto them, and after heating, the resulting cracks were interpreted as divine answers. Their inscriptions are the earliest known examples of systematic Chinese writing.

Zhou Dynasty

The dynasty that replaced the Shang, reigning from approximately 1046 to 256 BCE. It is notable for introducing a feudal decentralized governmental structure, granting land to loyal nobles in exchange for military service and tribute. They also formally articulated and widely adopted the Mandate of Heaven doctrine to legitimize their rule.

Legalism

A classical Chinese philosophical school that emerged during the Warring States period. It advocated for a highly centralized state with absolute power, governed by strict, impartial laws. Adherents believed that societal order and stability were best achieved through a system of clear legal codes, strong governmental authority, and severe punishments for transgressions, emphasizing state power over individual rights or moral persuasion.

Shang Yang

A highly influential Legalist statesman and reformer in the Qin state during the 4th century BCE. His radical policies aimed at strengthening central authority, promoting agriculture and military service, and dismantling the old aristocracy. These reforms laid much of the groundwork for Qin's eventual unification of China by creating a powerful, meritocratic bureaucracy and a formidable military machine.

Han Fei Zi

A prominent Legalist philosopher who lived during the late Warring States period. He synthesized and systematized the core ideas of Legalism, advocating for a state governed strictly by law, emphasizing the importance of a powerful sovereign, and rejecting Confucian ideals of morality and tradition in favor of pragmatic statecraft and efficient administration. His writings were highly influential in the Qin Dynasty's rise to power.

Qin Dynasty

The first time China was unified under a single imperial rule (221 to 206 BCE). Though short-lived, it implemented sweeping reforms, including the standardization of written script, weights, measures, and currency, and undertook ambitious infrastructure projects like early sections of the Great Wall. Its harsh Legalist policies, however, led to its rapid collapse.

Standardized Writing (Qin)

A significant reform under the Qin Dynasty where diverse regional scripts were unified into a single, common system of Chinese characters (Small Seal Script, and later Clerical Script). This standardization was crucial for administrative cohesion, enabling more efficient communication and control across the newly unified empire.

Han Dynasty

An influential imperial dynasty lasting from 206 BCE to 220 CE, largely expanding upon the centralized systems established by the preceding Qin Dynasty. Critically, it moved away from the Qin's extreme Legalism and fused aspects of Legalist administrative efficiency with the ethical and social hierarchy of Confucianism, creating a long-lasting imperial ideology. This period is often considered a golden age in Chinese history, marked by significant cultural and technological advancements.

Imperial Examination

A rigorous civil service recruitment test initiated during the Han Dynasty (and later refined by subsequent dynasties). It required candidates to demonstrate deep knowledge of Confucian classics and ethics. Successfully passing these examinations became the primary pathway to securing official positions within the imperial bureaucracy, fostering a merit-based (though still aristocratic-influenced) system of governance.

Confucianism

An ethical and philosophical system developed by Confucius in ancient China. It emphasizes the cultivation of moral virtues, maintaining social harmony through proper conduct, and understanding one's role within hierarchical relationships (e.g., ruler-subject, father-son). Key tenets include 'ren' (benevolence), 'li' (ritual propriety), and 'xiao' (filial piety). Unlike Legalism, this philosophy promotes rule by moral example and education.

Ren

A fundamental Confucian virtue (often translated as 'humaneness' or 'benevolence'). It signifies the ideal characteristic of a person who is compassionate, empathetic, and truly acts with kindness and moral integrity towards others, reflecting an ideal of human excellence and ethical conduct.

Li

In Confucian philosophy, a comprehensive concept encompassing proper ritual, ceremonies, etiquette, and social conduct. It dictates how individuals should behave in various social interactions and situations to maintain harmony, respect, and order within society, from grand state rituals to everyday manners.

Filial Piety

A cornerstone of Confucian ethics (xiao). It denotes the profound duty of respect, obedience, and care that children, especially sons, owe to their parents and, by extension, to their elders and ancestors. This duty extends to taking care of parents in old age, revering their memory, and upholding family honor, forming the basis of social cohesion and traditional Chinese family structure.

Daoism (Taoism)

A classical Chinese philosophy and religious tradition (also Taoism) emphasizing harmony with the 'Dao' (The Way). It advocates for living in naturalness (ziran), simplicity, and spontaneity, often involving a retreat from societal conventions and governmental interference. Unlike Confucianism's focus on social order, this philosophy stresses individual tranquility and alignment with the flow of the cosmos, often through practices like meditation and living a simple, balanced life.

Maya Civilization

A prominent Mesoamerican culture that flourished in present-day southern Mexico and Central America, peaking between approximately 250 and 900 CE. This civilization is known for its sophisticated hieroglyphic writing system, advanced astronomical knowledge (leading to complex calendar systems), impressive pyramid temples, and independent city-states, developing a highly complex society without a single unified empire.

Inca Empire

The largest pre-Columbian empire in the Americas, existing in the Andean region of South America primarily during the 15th and early 16th centuries. It was characterized by a highly centralized political system, remarkable engineering feats such as extensive terrace farming for agriculture and a vast network of roads connecting its distant territories, and managed its vast population without a written language.

Quipu

Sophisticated record-keeping devices used by the Inca Empire. They consisted of knotted cords, where different colors, types of knots, and their positions conveyed numerical and perhaps even narrative information. These devices were primarily used for accounting, census data, historical records, and administrative purposes in the absence of a written script.

Chinampas

Innovative 'floating garden' agricultural plots developed by the Aztec civilization in the shallow lakebeds surrounding their capital, Tenochtitlan. By constructing raised fields from lake sediment and vegetation, these plots significantly boosted maize and other crop yields, allowing the Aztecs to sustain a large urban population in their unique lacustrine environment.

Terrace Farming

An agricultural method where steps or 'terraces' are cut into the slopes of mountains or hillsides. This technique was perfected by the Inca Empire (among others) for high-altitude cultivation, allowing them to farm on steep terrain by reducing erosion, conserving water, and creating level ground for crops, thus maximizing arable land in their mountainous environment.

Machu Picchu

A majestically preserved Incan royal estate and citadel, nestled high in the Andes Mountains of Peru. Built around the mid-15th century, it is renowned for its sophisticated dry-stone construction that blends with the natural landscape and is believed to have served as a retreat for the Inca emperor Pachacuti or a sacred religious site.

Mita System

A mandatory public service labor draft employed by the Inca Empire. Communities were required to contribute a certain number of labor days each year for state projects, such as building roads, bridges, temples, or working in mines and agricultural fields for the state. This highly organized system facilitated the construction of the empire's vast infrastructure and economic output.

City-State

An independent urban center that, along with its surrounding territory, constitutes an autonomous political unit with its own government and laws. This form of political organization was characteristic of the Maya civilization, where numerous independent entities, rather than a single unified empire, coexisted and sometimes competed across the landscape.

Cyrus the Great

The visionary founder of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, established around 550 BCE. He is celebrated for his military prowess, expansionist policies that created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, and his remarkably tolerant approach towards the diverse peoples and cultures within his conquered territories, allowing local customs and religions to persist.

Satrapy

An administrative provincial district within the vast Persian Empire. Each district was governed by a 'satrap,' a regional governor appointed by the Persian king. Satraps were responsible for collecting tribute, maintaining order, and administering justice in their territories, while owing loyalty and resources directly to the central imperial authority.

Royal Road

An extensive and strategically important highway system in the ancient Persian Empire. Stretching over 1,600 miles from Susa to Sardis, it facilitated remarkably rapid communication, trade, and troop movements across the empire. Equipped with relay stations and fresh horses, it enabled royal messengers to cover its length in about a week, greatly aiding imperial administration and control.

Athenian Democracy

A direct democratic system developed in the Greek city-state of Athens around the 5th century BCE. It allowed unparalleled political participation for its eligible citizens: free-born adult male Athenians. Citizens directly voted on laws, held public office, and participated in large assembly meetings (the Ecclesia) to make collective decisions for the polis.

Socrates

A pivotal Athenian philosopher of the 5th century BCE, renowned for his Socratic method, also known as elenchus. This style of inquiry involved engaging in rigorous philosophical discussions by asking a series of probing questions to challenge assumptions, expose contradictions in thought, and explore ethical and epistemological concepts, influencing generations of thinkers through his emphasis on critical reasoning and self-knowledge.

Plato

An immensely influential ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates, and the teacher of Aristotle. He authored numerous philosophical dialogues, often featuring Socrates as a character, exploring topics such as ethics, politics, metaphysics, and epistemology. This philosopher also founded the Academy in Athens, Western Europe's first institution of higher learning, which propagated an influential theory of Forms, positing that non-physical, perfect Forms represent the most accurate reality.

Parthenon

An iconic ancient temple located on the Athenian Acropolis, built in the 5th century BCE. It was dedicated to the goddess Athena, the patron deity of Athens. This Doric-style temple is widely regarded as the pinnacle of classical Greek architecture and an enduring symbol of Athenian democracy and imperial power during its golden age.

Sparta

A powerful and distinctive Greek polis (city-state) in ancient Laconia, known for its highly militaristic and disciplined society. Its unique political structure included dual kingship, a council of elders (Gerousia), and an assembly (Apella), effectively forming an oligarchy. Life in this state was entirely dedicated to military training and preparedness from a young age, distinguishing it from other Greek city-states.

Persian Wars

A series of major military conflicts that took place between the Greek city-states and the vast Achaemenid Persian Empire from 499 to 449 BCE. These conflicts saw the Greek city-states, despite their internal rivalries, unite to successfully repel two large-scale Persian invasions of the Greek mainland, preserving their independence and shaping the future of European civilization.

Battle of Marathon

A crucial engagement during the first Persian invasion of Greece, fought in 490 BCE. In this battle, a significantly smaller Athenian army (with Plataean support) decisively defeated a larger Persian force on land near the plains of Marathon. This unexpected Greek victory boosted Greek morale and proved that the Persians could be defeated.

Battle of Thermopylae

A legendary three-day battle during the second Persian invasion of Greece, occurring in 480 BCE. A small force of 300 Spartans, led by King Leonidas, along with several thousand Greek allies, made a heroic last stand against the immense Persian army at a narrow coastal pass. Though ultimately overwhelmed, their courageous delay bought crucial time for the rest of Greece's defenses.

Battle of Salamis

A decisive naval battle during the second Persian invasion of Greece, fought in 480 BCE. The Greek fleet, though outnumbered, skillfully outmaneuvered and routed the much larger Persian navy in the narrow straits between Salamis and the mainland. This pivotal victory effectively destroyed Persian sea power and marked a crucial turning point in the Persian Wars, forcing the Persian king Xerxes to retreat.

Peloponnesian War

A protracted and devastating conflict that lasted from 431 to 404 BCE, primarily between the two leading Greek city-states: Athens (and its Delian League allies) and Sparta (and its Peloponnesian League allies). This long and bitter war ultimately resulted in Sparta's victory, but it left the Greek city-states greatly weakened and effectively ended Athens' golden age of cultural and political dominance.

Hoplite

A heavily armed Greek infantry soldier of ancient Greece. Equipped with a large round shield (aspis or hoplon), a spear (dory), and a sword, these soldiers typically fought in a tightly packed formation known as the phalanx. This disciplined and formidable fighting unit was central to Greek warfare and helped them resist foreign invaders and maintain their independence.

Alexander the Great

King of Macedon (356-323 BCE) and one of history's most brilliant military commanders. Following his father Philip II, he embarked on a vast conquest, overthrowing the mighty Persian Empire and creating an empire stretching from Greece to India. His conquests were instrumental in spreading Hellenistic culture throughout the ancient world.

Hellenism

The blend of Greek and Near Eastern cultures that emerged and flourished in the wake of Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly during the Hellenistic Age (roughly 323-31 BCE). It involved the diffusion of Greek language, art, philosophy, and political structures across a vast multi-ethnic empire, resulting in a rich synthesis of diverse traditions which profoundly influenced succeeding civilizations.

Greek Polis

The fundamental independent city-state unit of ancient Greece (plural: poleis). Each polis comprised an urban center and its surrounding agricultural land, possessing its own unique laws, customs, currency, and identity, fostering fierce regional loyalties and rivalries among the various Greek communities. Famous examples include Athens, Sparta, and Corinth.

Comparative Development (Maya vs. Inca)

Distinct evolutionary paths of prominent American civilizations. The Maya utilized a complex hieroglyphic writing system and organized into independent city-states. In contrast, the Inca Empire lacked a true writing system, instead using quipu for record-keeping, and developed a highly centralized, unified empire with extensive infrastructure.

Mandala of Empires (Qin to Han)

A concept describing the transformative political and cultural trajectory of ancient China. It refers to the rapid, forceful unification of China by the short-lived Qin Dynasty through Legalist principles, followed by the more enduring and culturally integrating consolidation and expansion of the Han Dynasty, which fused Legalism's practical governance with Confucianism's ethical framework, shaping imperial China for millennia.

Aztec Empire

A dominant Mesoamerican civilization that flourished in central Mexico from the 14th to the 16th centuries. Centered around its magnificent island capital of Tenochtitlan, this empire was known for its militaristic expansion, which led to a complex tribute system extracting resources from conquered peoples, and its impressive urban planning and agricultural innovations like chinampas.