AP MEYERS PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 3 KEY TERMS

Developmental Psychology

The branch of psychology that studies the psychological growth and changes that occur throughout a person's lifespan, focusing on transitions from infancy to adulthood.

Cross-Sectional Study

A research method that compares individuals of different ages at a single point in time to understand developmental changes.

Longitudinal Study

A research method that follows the same group of individuals over a period of time to observe changes and developments in their psychological and behavioral characteristics.

Teratogens

Agents or factors that cause malformation or harm to an embryo or fetus during prenatal development.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

A condition resulting from exposure to alcohol during pregnancy, leading to physical, behavioral, and cognitive impairments in the child.

Habituation

A form of non-associative learning in which an organism decreases or ceases its response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

Maturation

The process of biological growth and development that occurs in a relatively fixed sequence, influencing physical and behavioral changes throughout an organism's life.

Critical Period

A specific time frame during development when an organism is particularly sensitive to certain environmental stimuli. Exposure to appropriate stimuli during this period is crucial for normal development.

Adolescence

The developmental stage between childhood and adulthood, marked by physical, emotional, and social changes, including the onset of puberty and identity exploration.

Puberty

The period in life when an individual undergoes physical and hormonal changes that lead to sexual maturation and the development of secondary sexual characteristics.

Menopause

The natural cessation of menstruation occurring in women typically in their late 40s to early 50s, associated with hormonal changes and the end of reproductive fertility.

Sex

The biological classification of organisms based on their reproductive roles, typically identified as male or female, influencing physical and behavioral traits.

Gender

The social and cultural characteristics and roles associated with being male or female, which influence behavior, identity, and societal expectations.

Intersex

A condition where an individual is born with physical sex characteristics that do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies, potentially affecting their reproductive anatomy and function.

Aggression

A range of behaviors that are intended to cause harm or pain to others, either physically or psychologically. It can be influenced by biological, environmental, and social factors.

Relational Aggression

A type of aggression that harms others through subtle manipulation of relationships, such as spreading rumors or social exclusion, rather than physical violence.

Carol Gilligan

An American psychologist best known for her work on ethics and gender. She criticized traditional psychological theories for failing to account for women's moral development and perspectives.

X Chromosome

One of the two sex chromosomes in humans, contributing to genetic traits and determining female biological characteristics.

Y Chromosome

The sex chromosome that typically determines male biological characteristics and plays a crucial role in sex determination.

Testosterone

A hormone primarily produced in the testes that regulates the development of male sexual characteristics and influences muscle and bone mass.

Estrogen

A primary female sex hormone that regulates various reproductive functions, including menstrual cycles and pregnancy.

Primary Sex Characteristics

The physical features directly related to reproduction, such as the reproductive organs and external genitalia that develop during puberty.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Features that develop during puberty, distinguishing the sexes but not directly involved in reproduction, such as breast development and body hair.

Spermarche

The first occurrence of ejaculation in males, marking the onset of male fertility during puberty.

Menarche

The first occurrence of menstruation in females, signaling the onset of female fertility during puberty.

Role

The set of behaviors, expectations, and norms associated with a particular social position in society, especially regarding gender and family.

Gender Role

A set of societal expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female, influencing how individuals are expected to act in various social contexts.

Sexual Aggression

A pattern of behavior characterized by the use of force or coercion to engage in sexual activity, reflecting power dynamics in relationships.

Gender Identity

The personal sense of one's own gender, which may correspond with or differ from one's sex assigned at birth.

Social Learning Theory

The theory that people learn behaviors, norms, and roles through observation and imitation of others, especially within a social context.

Gender Typing

The process by which a child becomes aware of their gender and acquires the characteristics, behaviors, and roles considered appropriate for that gender within their culture.

Androgyny

A gender identity that encompasses both masculine and feminine characteristics, allowing for a more flexible expression of gender roles.

Sexuality

The capacity for sexual feelings, encompassing a range of physical, emotional, and romantic attractions, identities, and behaviors.

Asexual

A sexual orientation characterized by a lack of sexual attraction to others or a low interest in sexual activity.

Alfred Kinsey

A pioneering researcher in human sexuality known for the Kinsey Reports, which analyzed sexual behavior in the United States.

Social Script

A cognitive framework that guides social behavior, outlining expected norms and roles in various social situations.

Alice Eagly

A social psychologist known for her work on gender roles, stereotypes, and attitudes.

Sexual Orientation

A person's pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to individuals of the same or different genders.

Jean Piaget

Swiss psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development in children, which describes how they acquire knowledge and understand the world.

Cognition

The mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and understanding through experiences, senses, and thought.

Schema

A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information, shaping how an individual understands the world and processes new experiences.

Assimilation

The process of incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing them, allowing individuals to understand their environment better.

Accommodation

The cognitive process of modifying existing cognitive schemas or creating new ones in response to new information or experiences.

Sensorimotor Stage

The first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, occurring from birth to around 2 years old, where infants learn through interacting with their environment using their senses and actions.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen or heard, developed during the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development.

Preoperational Stage

The second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, occurring from approximately 2 to 7 years old, where children begin to engage in symbolic play and learn to manipulate symbols, but do not yet understand concrete logic.

Conservation

The understanding that certain physical properties of objects, such as volume, mass, and number, remain the same even when their shape or appearance changes, typically developed during the concrete operational stage.

Egocentrism

A characteristic of the preoperational stage where a child is unable to see a situation from another person's perspective, believing that others share their views and feelings.

Concrete Operational Stage

The third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, occurring from approximately 7 to 11 years old, where children gain a better understanding of mental operations and can think logically about concrete events.

Formal Operational Stage

The fourth stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, beginning around age 12, where individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically, allowing for problem solving and understanding hypothetical situations.

Lev Vygotsky

A Russian psychologist who emphasized the social influences on cognitive development, particularly through interactions with more knowledgeable others and the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development.

Scaffold

A framework or support provided by a teacher or more knowledgeable peer to help students achieve higher levels of understanding and skill acquisition within the Zone of Proximal Development.

Theory Of Mind

The ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives different from one's own. This cognitive skill develops in early childhood and is crucial for social interactions.

Language

The system of communication using sounds, symbols, or gestures that conveys meaning, enabling individuals to express thoughts, emotions, and ideas.

Noam Chomsky

A linguist who developed the theory of universal grammar, suggesting that the ability to acquire language is innate to humans.

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language that distinguishes words from one another.

Morpheme

The smallest unit of meaning in a language, which can be a word or a part of a word, such as a prefix or suffix.

Grammar

The system of rules that governs the structure and composition of phrases and sentences in a language.

Universal Grammar (UG)

The theory that all human languages share a common underlying structure, allowing individuals to learn any language naturally.

Babbling Stage

The early stage of language development in infants, typically occurring from 4 to 6 months, where they produce repetitive consonant-vowel combinations.

One-Word Stage

A developmental phase in language acquisition where infants use single words to communicate entire ideas or meanings, typically occurring around 12 months of age.

Two-Word Stage

The stage of language development in which children begin to form simple sentences using two words, typically around 18 to 24 months of age.

Telegraphic Speech

A form of communication that occurs during the two-word stage, where children use short sentences that convey essential meanings without grammatical markers, often resembling a telegram.

Aphasia

A language disorder that affects a person's ability to communicate, often resulting from brain damage or injury, leading to difficulties in speaking, understanding, reading, or writing.

Paul Broca

A French physician known for his research on language processing in the brain. He discovered Broca's area, which is crucial for speech production, and its damage can lead to expressive aphasia.

Broca's Area

An area in the frontal lobe of the brain that is associated with speech production and language processing, named after the neurologist with the first named Paul.

Carl Wernicke

A German neurologist known for his studies on language comprehension in the brain. He identified Wernicke's area, which is crucial for understanding spoken and written language, and its damage can lead to receptive aphasia.

Wernicke's Area

An area in the temporal lobe of the brain that is associated with language comprehension, named after a neurologist with the first name Carl.

Linguistic Determinism

The theory that language shapes and limits human thought and cognition, suggesting that people's understanding of the world is influenced by the language they speak.

Benjamin Lee Whorf

Linguistic Relativism

The principle that the structure of a language affects its speakers' worldview or cognition, implying that speakers of different languages may think differently.

Ecological Systems Theory

A framework developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner that posits human development is influenced by different environmental systems, ranging from immediate settings like family and school to broader societal contexts.

Stranger Anxiety

A developmental phenomenon where infants show distress when approached by unfamiliar people, typically occurring between 6 and 12 months of age.

Attachment

A deep emotional bond between an infant and their primary caregiver, influencing their social and emotional development.

Harry Harlow

Psychologist known for his studies on infant attachment using rhesus monkeys, demonstrating the importance of caregiving and emotional comfort.

Margaret Harlow

American psychologist known for her research on attachment, specifically in relation to infant monkeys and their bond with caregivers.

Imprinting

A critical period shortly after birth in which certain animals form attachments to their caregivers or objects in their environment.

Konrad Lorenz

A psychologist best known for his work on imprinting in birds, particularly geese, illustrating the biological basis for attachment during critical developmental periods.

Mary Ainsworth

Psychologist known for her studies on attachment styles in infants, particularly through the "Strange Situation" experiment.

Strange Situation

A procedure devised by Mary Ainsworth to observe attachment relationships between a caregiver and a child, assessing behaviors in unfamiliar contexts.

Secure Attachment

A strong emotional bond where infants feel safe and are easily comforted by caregivers, promoting healthy emotional development.

Insecure Attachment

A type of attachment characterized by anxiety or avoidance in relationships, where infants may not seek comfort or may resist closeness with caregivers, often leading to difficulties in emotional development.

Temperament

The inborn, relatively stable traits that influence how individuals react emotionally and behaviorally to their environment.

Erik Erikson

A developmental psychologist known for his theory on psychosocial development, which outlines eight stages that individuals go through, emphasizing the impact of social relationships on personal growth.

Basic Trust

A foundational belief that the world is a safe and reliable place, often developed during infancy through nurturing relationships with caregivers.

Self-Concept

The sense of one's own identity and personal worth, shaped by experiences, perceptions, and relationships with others.

Diana Baumrind

A developmental psychologist known for her research on parenting styles, identifying authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful parenting approaches.

Identity

The overall sense of self that a person develops over time, encompassing values, beliefs, personality traits, and experiences that differentiate one from others.

Social Identity

The part of an individual's self-concept derived from their membership in social groups, including aspects like race, nationality, religion, and social class.

Intimacy

A close, familiar, and usually affectionate or loving personal relationship with another individual.

Emerging Adulthood

A developmental stage occurring roughly from ages 18 to 25, characterized by exploration and transition into adult roles.

Social Clock

A cultural timetable that outlines expected life events and milestones at certain ages, such as marriage and parenthood.

Learning

The process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, behaviors, or understanding through experience, study, or teaching.

Associative Learning

A learning process in which a connection is made between two events through conditioning, typically involving the association of a stimulus with a response.

Stimulus

Any event or object that can elicit a response or reaction from an organism.

Respondent Behavior

A type of behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus, often established through classical conditioning.

Operant Behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences, typically associated with rewards or punishments.

Cognitive Learning

The process of learning that involves acquiring knowledge and skills through observation, imitation, and mental processing rather than direct experience.

Ivan Pavlov

A Russian physiologist known for his work in classical conditioning, demonstrating how stimuli can elicit specific responses.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. It was famously demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov in his experiments with dogs.