Plant Earth Notes for Exam

Geography

The science that studies the Earth and its features, including the spatial analysis of physical space and the distribution of things within it.

Spatial analysis

The method used by geographers to describe the Earth, focusing on the characteristics of physical space, its measurement, and the distribution of things within it.

Location

The absolute or relative position of a place on Earth, answering the question "where?"

Region

An area with uniform characteristics that may change over time and have relationships with other regions.

Movement

The communication, circulation, migration, and diffusion of people, goods, and ideas across Earth's surface.

Place

The unique combination of tangible and intangible characteristics that make a specific location distinct.

Human-Earth Relationships

The interactions between humans and the Earth, including resource exploitation, hazard perception, and environmental pollution and modification.

Systems Theory

An ordered set of interrelated components and their attributes, which can be made up of subsystems.

Open systems

Systems that have inputs and outputs of energy and matter, exchanging with their surroundings.

Closed systems

Systems that have no external influences and are shut off from their surroundings.

Negative feedbacks

Outputs that influence the system to discourage or counteract further outputs.

Positive feedbacks

Outputs that cause a domino effect or chain reaction, encouraging further outputs.

Steady-state equilibrium

A system fluctuating around a stable average and maintaining the same operational level.

Dynamic equilibrium

A system fluctuating around a stable average but exhibiting an overall trend and potential abrupt changes.

Latitude

The angular distance north or south of the equator, measured from the center of the Earth.

Longitude

The angular distance east or west of a point on the Earth's surface, measured from the center of the Earth.

Tropics

The geographic zones between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S), where the sun can be directly overhead.

Prime Meridian

The line of longitude designated as 0°, passing through Greenwich, England, and serving as the standard for time.

Time Zones

Divisions of the Earth's surface based on the rotation of the Earth, with each zone approximately 15° wide and representing a one-hour difference in time.

Map

A generalized view of an area seen from above and reduced in size.

Scale

The ratio of map units to ground units, indicating how much a map is shrunk or reduced.

Projection

The process of transforming the spherical Earth onto a flat map, causing distortions in size, shape, or distance.

Correct projection

The idea that there is no one correct way to project the Earth's surface onto a map, as it depends on the intended use.

Cylindrical Projections

A type of projection that represents the Earth's surface as if it were wrapped around a cylinder, with distortion increasing the farther away from the equator.

Planar Projections

A type of projection that represents the Earth's surface as if it were projected onto a flat plane, often used for polar projections.

Conic Projections

A type of projection that represents the Earth's surface as if it were projected onto a cone, minimizing error of shape and size.

Remote Sensing

A method of gathering information about the Earth's surface without direct physical contact, using instruments on aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, etc.

Geostationary Orbit

An orbit where a satellite remains "parked" over the same location on Earth's equator, allowing it to see a large portion of the world.

Polar Orbit

An orbit where a satellite rotates from pole to pole around the Earth, allowing it to see different parts of the Earth with each rotation.

Sun-synchronous Orbit

An orbit where a satellite shifts its track slightly every day so that it is always in daylight, similar to polar orbits.

Active Remote Sensing

A type of remote sensing where the instrument provides its own energy and sends a beam of energy to the surface, analyzing the energy that is sent back.

Passive Remote Sensing

A type of remote sensing that records the natural radiation emitted or reflected from a surface, without actively sending energy.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

A tool used to combine and analyze spatial and attribute data, allowing for the creation of composite maps with multiple data layers.

Plane of the Ecliptic

The plane that the Earth takes as it orbits around the Sun, which is important for measuring the tilt of the Earth.

Aphelion

The point in the Earth's orbit where it is farthest from the Sun.

Sunspots

Dark spots on the surface of the Sun caused by magnetic storms, which follow an activity cycle of approximately 11 years.

Solar Wind

Streams of electrically charged particles emitted by the Sun, which are deflected towards the poles by the Earth's magnetosphere.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, from short (harmful) to long (safer).

Longwave Radiation

Radiation emitted by objects with a temperature greater than absolute zero, such as the Earth.

Shortwave Radiation

Radiation emitted by objects with a high temperature, such as the Sun.

Solar radiation

Energy from the sun that reaches the Earth.

Infrared

Electromagnetic waves with longer wavelengths than visible light, which are emitted by the Earth as heat energy.

Insolation

Incoming solar radiation.

Earth's curvature

The round shape of the Earth, which causes uneven distribution of insolation.

Perpendicular rays

Sun rays that hit a location at a 90-degree angle, resulting in more intense insolation.

Variability in insolation

Changes in the intensity of insolation due to the sun's position, including altitude and declination.

Tropic of Cancer

The latitude line at 23.5 degrees North, where the sun is directly overhead during the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere.

Tropic of Capricorn

The latitude line at 23.5 degrees South, where the sun is directly overhead during the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere.

Daylength

The duration of daylight in a 24-hour period, which affects the amount of insolation received.

Equator

The latitude line at 0 degrees, where the sun is directly overhead during the equinoxes.

Revolution

The Earth's orbit around the sun, which takes approximately 365.25 days.

Rotation

The spinning of the Earth on its own axis, causing the daily cycle of daylight and darkness.

Tilt of Earth's axis

The 23.5-degree angle at which the Earth's axis is tilted relative to the plane of its orbit.

Axial parallelism

The phenomenon where the Earth's axis maintains its alignment during its entire orbit around the sun.

Sphericity

The surface area covered by a given amount of insolation.

Summer solstice

The day with the longest daylight and shortest night in the Northern Hemisphere, occurring around June 21st.

Fall equinox

The day when neither hemisphere is tilted toward or away from the sun, resulting in equal day and night lengths, occurring around September 22nd.

Winter solstice

The day with the shortest daylight and longest night in the Northern Hemisphere, occurring around December 21st.

Spring equinox

The day when neither hemisphere is tilted toward or away from the sun, resulting in equal day and night lengths, occurring around March 21st.

Atmosphere

The thin layer of gases surrounding the Earth that is essential for life and helps maintain temperature.

Atmospheric pressure

The force exerted by the weight of the atmosphere on a given area.

Nitrogen

The most abundant gas in the Earth's atmosphere, making up approximately 78% of its composition.

Oxygen

The second most abundant gas in the Earth's atmosphere, making up approximately 21% of its composition.

Carbon Dioxide

A trace gas in the Earth's atmosphere, making up approximately 0.031% of its composition.

Aragon

A trace gas in the Earth's atmosphere, making up approximately 0.9% of its composition.

Atmospheric profile

The vertical distribution of temperature, composition, and function of the Earth's atmosphere.

Thermosphere

The uppermost layer of the atmosphere, extending from 80 km outward, with high temperatures but little heat.

Mesosphere

The layer of the atmosphere located between the stratosphere and the thermosphere, with decreasing temperatures upward.

Stratosphere

The layer of the atmosphere located between the troposphere and the mesosphere, with increasing temperatures upward.

Troposphere

The lowest layer of the atmosphere, extending from the surface to approximately 18 km, where weather occurs and temperature decreases with altitude.

Tropopause

The boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere.

Ionosphere

The region of the atmosphere spanning across the mesosphere and thermosphere, where incoming particles are converted from atoms to ions and auroras occur.

Ozonosphere

The part of the stratosphere containing ozone (O3), which absorbs most of the harmful UV radiation from the sun.

Ozone hole

A thinning of the ozone layer, particularly over Antarctica, caused by synthetic compounds from human activities.

Variable atmospheric components

Gases, particles, and chemicals present in the atmosphere that vary in concentration and origin.

Naturally emitted

Substances or particles that are released into the atmosphere through natural processes, such as volcanoes, forest fires, plants, decaying plants, soil, and the ocean.

Anthropogenic Pollution

Pollution caused by human activities, including the release of small particles of dust, soot, and pollution from urban/industrial sources and agricultural fires/burning.

Valleys

Low-lying areas between mountains or hills that can trap pollutants due to temperature inversions.

Temperature Inversion

A layer in the atmosphere where the temperature suddenly increases instead of decreasing, which can trap pollutants in valleys.

Insolation

Incoming solar radiation received at Earth's surface.

Scattering

The process by which light is redirected in all directions without changing its wavelength, resulting in diffusing radiation.

Refraction

The change in direction and speed of radiation when it passes from one medium to another, such as from outer space to the Earth's atmosphere.

Reflection

The bouncing back of energy without any change, resulting in the reflective property or brightness of a surface, measured by albedo.

Absorption

The assimilation of radiation by an object, converting it from one form of energy to another.

Conduction

The transfer of heat or energy between molecules through direct contact.

Convection/Advection

The vertical or horizontal transfer of heat or energy through the movement of fluids or gases.

Greenhouse Effect

The process by which greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb and trap outgoing longwave radiation, delaying energy loss from the Earth.

Net Radiation

The difference between incoming and outgoing radiation at the Earth's surface, including shortwave and longwave radiation.

Latent Heating

The hidden heat released or absorbed during the evaporation or condensation of water.

Sensible Heating

The heat that can be sensed or felt, transferred through convection and conduction.

Ground Heating/Cooling

The energy flow in or out of the ground through conduction, which is balanced on an annual basis.

Temperature Scales

Different scales used to measure temperature, including Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin.