2012-1 Overview of Life-Span Development and Theoretical Perspectives

What is the life-span perspective on development?

Development is a lifelong process that begins at conception and continues until death.

How does each person's development vary according to the life-span perspective?

Each person develops partly like all others, partly like some others, and partly like no other individual.

What are the key stages of development studied in life-span development?

Infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age.

Why is studying life-span development important?

It helps parents, teachers, and caregivers support development, provides insight into personal history, prepares individuals for future life stages, and explores questions about identity and growth.

What is the first characteristic of the life-span perspective according to Baltes?

Lifelong - No single age dominates development; changes occur at all stages.

What does the multidimensional characteristic of the life-span perspective entail?

It includes biological, cognitive, and socioemotional aspects.

What does the multidirectional characteristic of the life-span perspective indicate?

Some abilities improve while others decline, such as language learning versus processing speed in aging.

What does plasticity in the life-span perspective refer to?

The capacity for change exists throughout life, such as cognitive training in older adults.

What does the multidisciplinary characteristic of the life-span perspective involve?

It draws from various fields including psychology, sociology, neuroscience, and medicine.

What is meant by the contextual characteristic of the life-span perspective?

Development occurs within settings like family, culture, and history, influenced by normative age-graded, normative history-graded, and nonnormative life events.

What are normative age-graded influences?

Influences that are tied to specific ages, such as puberty and retirement.

What are nonnormative life events?

Unique events that can affect development, such as winning the lottery or experiencing early parental death.

What is the focus of older adults in terms of development?

Older adults focus on maintenance of abilities rather than growth.

How do biology, culture, and individual choices interact in development?

People actively shape their development through the co-construction of these elements.

What contemporary concern relates to health and well-being in life-span development?

Lifestyle and psychological factors impact health, and increased life expectancy raises challenges for aging populations.

What changing family structures are noted in parenting and education?

Same-sex parenting and divorce are examples of changing family structures.

How do sociocultural contexts and diversity shape development?

Culture, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and gender influence development, with poverty affecting child development.

What is the role of social policy in life-span development?

Government actions impact welfare, and resilience helps some children overcome adversity.

How does technology influence life-span development?

Technology has a pervasive influence at all life stages, raising concerns about physical activity and multitasking effects on learning.

What are the three key developmental processes?

Biological processes, cognitive processes, and socioemotional processes.

How are the key developmental processes interconnected?

For example, a baby's smile involves biological, cognitive, and emotional processes.

What is Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience?

A field that links brain development and cognition.

What does Developmental Social Neuroscience study?

It links brain development and social-emotional behavior.

What are the eight periods of human development?

1. Prenatal Period (conception to birth) 2. Infancy (birth to 18-24 months) 3. Early Childhood (2-5 years) 4. Middle/Late Childhood (6-11 years) 5. Adolescence (10-12 to 18-22 years) 6. Emerging Adulthood (18-25 years) 7. Early Adulthood (20s-30s) 8. Middle Adulthood (40-60 years) 9. Late Adulthood (60s+).

What characterizes the Prenatal Period of development?

Rapid physical growth from conception to birth.

What are the key features of Infancy?

Dependence on adults, early language and motor skills from birth to 18-24 months.

What developmental milestones occur during Early Childhood?

Self-sufficiency, school readiness, and play from ages 2 to 5.

What is the focus of development in Middle/Late Childhood?

Mastery of reading, writing, math, and increased social awareness from ages 6 to 11.

What significant changes occur during Adolescence?

Physical changes, identity formation, and abstract thinking from ages 10-12 to 18-22.

What is the primary focus during Emerging Adulthood?

Exploration of careers, relationships, and independence from ages 18 to 25.

What characterizes Early Adulthood?

Career establishment and family life in the 20s and 30s.

What are the main aspects of Middle Adulthood?

Career stability and guiding the next generation from ages 40 to 60.

What defines Late Adulthood?

Retirement, health changes, and life reflection starting from age 60.

What is the difference between the young-old and oldest-old?

Young-old (65-84) retain cognitive function, while oldest-old (85+) experience greater decline and frailty.

What are the three types of age?

1. Biological Age - health of organs 2. Psychological Age - adaptive abilities 3. Social Age - relationships and roles.

What are the three aging patterns?

1. Normal Aging - gradual decline 2. Pathological Aging - faster decline (e.g., dementia) 3. Successful Aging - maintaining health longer.

Why do older adults often report higher happiness?

Due to contentment with life, better relationships, less pressure, and wisdom.

What age group often has lower life satisfaction?

Middle age (45-54) often experiences lower life satisfaction.

What are the key issues in developmental psychology?

1. Nature vs. Nurture 2. Stability vs. Change 3. Continuity vs. Discontinuity.

What does the Nature vs. Nurture debate entail?

Nature refers to genetics setting growth patterns, while nurture involves environmental influences.

What is meant by Stability vs. Change in development?

Stability suggests early traits persist, while change indicates later experiences can alter development.

What is the difference between Continuity and Discontinuity in development?

Continuity involves gradual change, while discontinuity involves stage-like shifts.

What is the four-step process of the scientific method in developmental research?

1. Conceptualize a problem 2. Collect data 3. Analyze data 4. Draw conclusions.

What are the two major theories in Psychoanalytic Theories?

1. Freud's Psychosexual Stages 2. Erikson's Psychosocial Stages.

What are Freud's Psychosexual Stages?

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital; fixation occurs if needs are under- or over-gratified.

What is Erikson's Psychosocial Stages?

Eight stages where each involves a crisis to resolve, such as Trust vs. Mistrust.

What are the four stages of Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory?

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational.

How do children construct knowledge according to Piaget?

Through assimilation and accommodation.

What is the main focus of Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory?

The emphasis on social interaction and culture in learning.

What does the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) refer to?

The difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with help.

What does Information-Processing Theory compare the mind to?

A computer, focusing on input, processing, memory, and output.

What is a key focus of Behavioral & Social Cognitive Theories?

Observable behavior and environmental influences.

What is Skinner's concept of Operant Conditioning?

Behavior is shaped by reinforcement (rewards) and punishment.

What is a key aspect of Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory?

Observational learning, or imitation of models.

What is reciprocal determinism in Bandura's theory?

The interaction between behavior, environment, and cognition.

What does Ethological Theory focus on?

Biological and evolutionary influences on behavior.

What is Lorenz's concept of Imprinting?

A critical period for attachment, where young animals follow the first moving object they see.

What does Bowlby's Attachment Theory suggest?

Early secure attachment leads to healthy social development.

What are the five systems in Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory?

Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, Chronosystem.

What is the focus of the Microsystem in Bronfenbrenner's theory?

The immediate environment, such as family and school.

What is a strength of the Psychoanalytic theory?

It provides emotional depth and emphasizes family influence.

What is a common criticism of Cognitive theory?

Its stages may not be universal.

What is a strength of Behavioral theory?

It has a strong scientific basis and practical applications.

What is a criticism of Ethological theory?

It may overemphasize biology and present a rigid view of critical periods.

What does the Eclectic Approach in developmental psychology advocate?

Combining insights from multiple theories to understand development.

What is the first step in the scientific method for developmental research?

Conceptualize a research question.

What are the pros of Laboratory Observation?

High control over conditions.

What are the cons of Naturalistic Observation?

It may have limited generalizability due to the real-world setting.

What is Naturalistic Observation in research?

A method involving real-world settings to study behaviors, such as parent-child interactions in a park, with high ecological validity but less control over variables.

What are the pros and cons of using Surveys and Interviews in research?

Pros: Quick and allows for large samples. Cons: Subject to social desirability bias, where participants may lie to appear favorable.

What are Standardized Tests and their advantages and disadvantages?

Standardized tests use uniform procedures (e.g., IQ tests) allowing for comparisons across individuals. However, they may not capture situational variability like test anxiety.

What is a Case Study and what are its strengths and weaknesses?

An in-depth analysis of one individual, providing rich insights but lacking generalizability and being subject to subjective interpretations.

What are Physiological Measures in research?

Methods such as neuroimaging (fMRI), heart rate/cortisol measurements, eye-tracking, and genetic testing that assess biological responses related to behavior.

What is the goal of Descriptive Research?

To observe and record behavior without determining cause-effect relationships.

What is Correlational Research and its limitations?

It measures relationships between variables (e.g., parenting style and child aggression) but cannot establish causation.

What does a correlation coefficient indicate?

It ranges from -1.00 (perfect negative correlation) to +1.00 (perfect positive correlation), indicating the strength and direction of a relationship.

What is the goal of Experimental Research?

To establish cause-effect relationships by manipulating independent variables and measuring dependent variables.

What is an Independent Variable (IV) in experimental research?

The manipulated factor in an experiment, such as meditation in pregnant women.

What is a Dependent Variable (DV) in experimental research?

The measured outcome of an experiment, such as newborn sleep patterns.

What is the purpose of a Control Group in experimental research?

To provide a baseline comparison by not manipulating the independent variable.

What is Random Assignment and its significance in research?

A method that reduces bias by assigning participants to groups by chance.

What are the strengths and limitations of Experimental Research?

Strengths: Provides the strongest evidence for causality. Limitations: Ethical constraints prevent manipulation of harmful variables.

What is Cross-Sectional Design in research?

A method that compares different age groups at one time, which is quick and cost-effective but may have cohort effects.

What is Longitudinal Design in research?

A method that tracks the same individuals over time, revealing developmental stability and change, but is time-consuming and subject to participant dropout.

What is Sequential Design in research?

A combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches that controls for cohort effects but is complex and expensive.

What are Generational (Cohort) Effects?

Shared historical experiences that shape behavior, such as differences in reasoning scores between older adults today and those tested 20 years ago.

What are the key ethical considerations in research according to APA guidelines?

Informed consent, confidentiality, debriefing, and deception only if necessary with no harm.

What is the importance of Informed Consent in research?

Participants must understand the risks and benefits of their involvement in a study.

What does Confidentiality in research entail?

Data must be kept private to protect participants' identities.

What is the significance of Debriefing in research?

It involves explaining the purpose of the study to participants after their participation.

What is a key takeaway regarding research methods in psychology?

No single method is perfect; researchers often combine approaches for robust findings.