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Central Nervous System
Includes brain and spinal cord.
Spinal Cord
Major pathway for sensory and motor information.
Cranial Nerves
Twelve pairs of nerves from the brain.
Dorsal Root Ganglion
Cell bodies of sensory nerves located here.
Ventral Roots
Carry motor information from the spinal cord.
Gray Matter
Contains cell bodies and dendrites in spinal cord.
White Matter
Surrounds gray matter; contains myelinated axons.
Peripheral Nervous System
Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.
Somatic Nervous System
Conveys messages from senses to CNS.
Autonomic Nervous System
Controls involuntary functions like heart rate.
Sympathetic Nervous System
Prepares body for vigorous activity; fight or flight.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Conserves energy; decreases heart rate.
Norepinephrine
Main chemical messenger in sympathetic response.
Acetylcholine
Major neurotransmitter for muscle contraction.
Botulinum Toxin
Paralyzes muscles by blocking acetylcholine release.
Black Widow Venom
Stimulates excessive acetylcholine release.
Dorsal
Located toward the back of the body.
Ventral
Located toward the stomach of the body.
Medial
Toward the midline of the body.
Lateral
Away from the midline of the body.
Anterior
Toward the front of the body.
Posterior
Toward the rear of the body.
Coronal Plane
Shows brain structures from the front.
Sagittal Plane
Shows brain structures from the side.
Horizontal Plane
Shows brain structures from above.
Hindbrain
Controls vital functions; includes medulla and pons.
Medulla
Controls vital reflexes like breathing.
Pons
Bridge for motor and sensory information.
Cerebellum
Coordinates balance and motor learning.
Purkinje Cells
Integrate input for balance and coordination.
Tectum
Dorsal part of midbrain; sensory processing.
Superior Colliculus
Processes visual input and eye movement.
Inferior Colliculus
Processes auditory input and sound localization.
Substantia Nigra
Involved in movement; contains dopamine.
Basal Ganglia
Major motor area; involved in habits and rewards.
Hippocampus
Involved in short-term and explicit memory.
Amygdala
Processes emotions, fears, and anger.
Caudate Nucleus
Major basal ganglia component near lateral ventricles.
Putamen
Lateral structure involved in motor control.
Globus Pallidus
Medial to putamen; regulates movement signals.
Globus Pallidus Internus (GPi)
Directly communicates with thalamus for motor output.
Globus Pallidus Externus (GPe)
Regulates signals from striatum to basal ganglia.
Direct Pathway
Facilitates movement via excitatory signals to GPi.
Indirect Pathway
Reduces movement through inhibition of GPi.
Hypothalamus
Regulates homeostasis and hormonal control.
Basal Forebrain
Involved in arousal and attention; releases acetylcholine.
Ventricles
Cavities in brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
3rd Ventricle
Located in diencephalon, lined with choroid plexus.
4th Ventricle
Located in hindbrain, above medulla, below cerebellum.
Motor Cortex
Sends input to caudate and putamen for movement.
Cognitive Functions
Includes learning, memory, and habit formation.
Inhibition
Process of reducing neuronal activity.
Excitation
Process of increasing neuronal activity.
Arousal
State of being awake and alert.
Homeostasis
Maintenance of stable internal conditions.
Nucleus Basalis
Part of basal forebrain; involved in attention.
Meninges
Three protective membranes covering the CNS.
Dura Mater
Outer layer of the meninges.
Arachnoid Mater
Middle layer of the meninges.
Pia Mater
Innermost layer of the meninges.
Epidural
Anesthetic application inside dura mater.
Meningitis
Infection of the meninges.
Spinal Tap
Procedure to remove CSF for testing.
Cortex
Brain region composed of six layers.
Primary Motor Area
Cortex area for basic motor execution.
Supplementary Motor Area
Cortex area for posture and limb movement.
Postcentral Gyrus
Location of primary somatosensory area.
Primary Somatosensory Area
Maps sensory inputs from the body.
Somatosensory Association Area
Interprets sensory information significance.
Primary Auditory Area
Receives auditory input via the thalamus.
Auditory Association Area
Interprets sound meaning and context.
Insular Cortex
Involved in consciousness and taste perception.
Primary Gustatory Area
Receives taste information from the body.
Primary Visual Area
Processes visual input from the thalamus.
Visual Association Area
Interprets and gives meaning to visual input.
Prefrontal Cortex
Responsible for executive functions like planning.
Layer I (Molecular Layer)
Outermost cortex layer, integrates information.
Layer II (External Granular Layer)
Contains small pyramidal cells for local processing.
Layer III (External Pyramidal Layer)
Medium pyramidal cells coordinate cortical communication.
Layer IV (Internal Granular Layer)
Primary sensory input layer in cortex.
Layer V (Internal Pyramidal Layer)
Contains large pyramidal cells, including Betz cells.
Efferents
Long-range projections to subcortical structures.
Corticospinal tract
Pathway from cortex to spinal cord.
Corticobulbar tract
Pathway from cortex to brainstem.
Basal ganglia
Group of nuclei involved in motor control.
Layer VI
Multiform layer with pyramidal and fusiform cells.
Thalamus
Brain structure involved in sensory processing.
Feedback loops
Connections that regulate sensory information processing.
Layer I
Involved in intracortical communication.
Layer II
Receives thalamic input, sends outputs to cortex.
Layer III
Facilitates intercortical communication and projections.
Layer IV
Processes sensory input from the thalamus.
Layer V
Sends outputs to subcortical structures.
Occipital lobe
Brain region for visual information processing.
Visual processing
Interpreting stimuli from the eyes.
V1 (Primary Visual Cortex)
Initial processing area for visual information.
V2, V3, V4, V5
Regions for complex visual processing.
Cortical blindness
Inability to perceive visual information despite functional eyes.
Striate Cortex
Initial visual feature analysis before higher processing.
Cortical Blindness
Loss of vision due to V1 damage, eyes intact.
