Bio unit 2 -quiz

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87 Terms

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Deoxyribonucleic acid

genetic material that occurs in the chromosomes of the nucleus as well as mitochondria

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Ribonucleic acid

mostly found in the cytoplasm and is used mostly for building proteins

  • Some viruses use it as their genetic material

  • Viruses depend on the cells of living organisms in order to survive and replicate and are therefore not considered to be living

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Nucleotides composition

-A pentose sugar -A phosphate group -A nitrogenous base

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Bases with 2 rings

Purines (A&G)

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Bases with 1 ring

Pyrimidines (C

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Adenine complementary base-pairing

Thymine

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Cytosine complementary base-pairing

Guanine

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Genes

sequences of nucleotides where DNA stores genetic information

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mRNA

  • -Synthesized from DNA in regions encoding genes

  • Contains instructions for building proteins when combined with a ribosome

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tRNA

  • Molecules of RNA with amino acids attached

  • Function is to transfer correct amino acid to growing chain of amino acid on the ribosome

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RNA

  • Found in ribosomes and helps with protein synthesis

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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

  • Used in cells as a source of chemical energy

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Genome

Entire sequence of DNA in an organism

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Universal common ancestor

Universality of the genetic code across living organisms suggests a ____________________

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Why DNA has to be able to replicate accurately:

When a cell divides, the genetic code it carries can be passed to daughter cells which are required for growth, tissue repair and reproduction

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composition of DNA

DNA is a polymer composed of monomers called nucleotides

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What DNA strands are held together by

Hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs

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Semi-conservative

In the 2 new DNA molecules produced, 1 is old from parental DNA and 1 is newly synthesized

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DNA replication is carried out by

Series of enzymes

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First stage of DNA replication

Separation of double helix into two single strands

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How DNA strands are separated

Enzyme helicase unwinds and breaks hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs

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DNA polymerase function DNA replication

Moves along each strand and adds complementary nucleotides

  • forming covalent bonds between nucleotides creating a new strand

  • Removes any incorrect nucleotides in the new strand (proofreads)

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End result of DNA replication

2 daughter DNA molecules identical to parent

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Amplifying DNA

When only a small sample of DNA is available, it can be copied repeatedly in a process called polymerase chain reaction to amplify the small quantity

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Polymerase Chain Reaction

Lab technique that can take a small amount of DNA and make millions of copies using a thermocycler, amplifies a targeted section of DNA

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Primers

Component of PCR which are single-stranded, short polymers of 15-20 nucleotides which are complementary to the nucleotides at one end of the DNA to be copied

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Taq polymerase

Component of PCR from thermophilic bacteria that can withstand high temperatures and still not denature

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Denaturation (PCR)

Mixture is heated to 92-98 degrees to break hydrogen bonds which hold two DNA strands together

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Annealing

Mixture is cooled to 50-65° which allows primers to bind with nucleotides on both strands at the ends of the target sequence

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Elongation

Taq polymerase catalyses the building of new DNA strands by extending the primers

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Unique properties of a protein lie in:

Which amino acids are involved in its construction, and the sequence in which the amino acids are condensed together

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Transcription

Process of synthesizing RNA from DNA

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How and why DNA communicates with ribosomes

To control production of proteins by producing a code that is carried from the nucleus to the cytoplasm by RNA

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How is RNA exported to the cytoplasm

As mRNA

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Translation

mRNA combines with ribosomes to to synthesize a protein

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Initiation

RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA sequence called the promoter which promotes the binding of DNA polymerase

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Elongation

  • RNA polymerase synthesizes an RNA transcript

    • Has a helicase function as it separates DNA double helix by hydrogen bonds between complementary bases

  • Complementary base pairs are the same as in double strand DNA except adenine is now paired with uracil on the RNA molecule

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Termination

RNA polymerase reaches a transcription terminator signal on the DNA which dislodges the RNA strand and releases polymerase

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Capping

At 5’ end, a modified guanine is added at the front (Guanine Cap)

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Polyadenylation

At 3’ end, many adenines are added (poly A tail)

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Splicing

Segments of RNA sequences get cut out

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Messenger RNA

Carries genetic message from DNA to ribosomes

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Transfer RNA

Functions in the cytoplasm to carry amino acids for the ribosomes

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Ribosomal RNA

Combines with ribosomal proteins to construct the cytoplasmic ribosomes

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Ribosome composition

Two halves, a large subunit which has binding sites for the tRNAs and catalyzes peptide bonds between amino acids, and small subunit which binds to the mRNA

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Genetic code

Set of rules by which information encoded in mRNA sequences are converted into proteins by living cells

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Genetic code is universal

All living organisms share the same code with a few exceptions- allows us to insert genes from one species to another using genetic engineering techniques

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Coding region always starts with :

Start codon

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Coding region stops with:

Stop codon

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Stop codons

Blank tRNAs which do not code for an amino acid, causing the release of the polypeptide from the ribosome because there is no peptide bond to be catalyzed

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Translation depends on:

Complementary base pairing between mRNA codons and tRNA anticodons

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Sickle Cell anemia

Blood disorder where RBCs become sickle shaped and can’t carry oxygen properly

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Why sickle cell anemia occurs

a single base substitution mutation in one of the genes that make hemoglobin. a point mutation happens in a triplet Imran codes for amino acid glutamic acid and changes it to valine

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Cellular respiration

Process where energy is made available from nutrients, where there is a controlled release of energy from organic compounds in cells.

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Cellular respiration changes energy from:

One form of currency (glucose) to another (atp)

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Why energy needs to be turned into atp

Glucose is stable while ATP breaks down to release energy it stores

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why ATP is unstable

ATP has three phosphates linked in a linear sequence, and the last two phosphates are attached by high energy covalent bonds. The negative charge of the phosphate groups repel creating unstable covalent bonds which can easily be broken by hydrolysis and hydrolysis results in release of energy.

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How ATP must be produced

Continually

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What ATP is synthesized from

ADP and phosphate

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What does breakdown of glucose in cellular respiration do

Drives the synthesis of ATP

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Aerobic respiration

Cyclic series of chemical reactions in which glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen to produce ATP

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Word equation of aerobic respiration

glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + ATP

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a glucose can yield a maximum of this many ATP molecules in aerobic respiration

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Where aerobic respiration occurs

Cytoplasm and mitochondria

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Number of ATP in aerobic respiration

2 needed to begin, 4 produced, net 2

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Anaerobic respiration

glucose can be broken down without using oxygen to yield a small quantity of ATP

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Where anaerobic respiration occurs

Cytoplasm

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when anaerobic respiration is useful

  • Rapid burst of ATP production needed

  • Oxygen supplies run out in respiring cells

  • In environments that are oxygen deficient

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Fermentation

Breakdown of organic molecules for anaerobic ATP production

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Word equation for anaerobic respiration

glucose lactate + ATP

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Temperature as a limiting factor

Temperatures above and below the optimal temperature will decrease the rate

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Carbon dioxide concentration as a limiting factor

Increases in carbon dioxide will decrease the rate of respiration

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Oxygen concentration as a limiting factor

Lower oxygen concentrations will decrease the rate of respiration

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Glucose concentration as a limiting factor

Low glucose levels will decrease the rate of respiration

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Type of cell as a limiting factor

Some types of cells require more energy than others

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Photosynthesis

Metabolic pathway in which CO2 and water are used to produce carbohydrates through a complex series of reactions.

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What happens to carbon during photosynthesis

Carbon is fixed from carbon dioxide and is used to produce glucose

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Where photosynthesis occurs

In chloroplasts of plant cells

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How oxygen gas is produced in photosynthesis

From the photolysis of water

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wavelength with higher energy

Shorter wavelength

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Wavelength with lower energy

Longer

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What determines the capacity for plants and more to absorb light energy

The pigments present on the chloroplast membranes

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What varies in each photosynthetic pigment

How much of each wavelength of light is absorbed

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What happens when light is absorbed in a pigment

It is used to raise an electron in the pigment to a higher energy level which requires a specific quantum of energy. This high energy level leads to the creation of chemical bonds.

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Action spectra

Indicates rate of photosynthesis at different wavelengths of light, can be calculated from rate of oxygen produced or rate of carbon dioxide used.

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Chromatography

Separates photosynthetic pigments based on their solubility in an organic solvent

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Photosynthesis limiting factors

  • Amount of water

  • Amount of sunlight

  • Temperature

  • Carbon dioxide

  • Chloroplasts

  • Chlorophyll