PRACTICAL PART - PROPED

EXAM, practical part, fra ANKI

What to do on signalment, General Status, TPR

Signalment:

• Name

• Age category/species/sex

  • cattle - weaner, heifer, steer, bull, dairy cow, ox

  • sheep: lamb, ewe, ram wether (castrated)

  • goat: kid, goat, billy goat, buck

  • dog: puppy, bitch, dog, neuter

• breed

• color pattern

• age accurate (by teeth or horns)

• weight

• Designation (branding), ID number (ear tag, tattoo, chip)

• Owner info

Anamnesis: symptoms, nature, development, circumstances, etc.

General status:

• Behavior (coma (-2) - dull - bright/alert - excited - restless - mania - frenzy (4)

• Posture (reg/irregular)

• nutritional state (very poor, poor, average (3), good, excellent, obese

TPR:

• Respiration per minute

  • cattle: 10-30

  • horse: 8-16

  • small ru: 12-30

  • dog: 10-30

• Pulse per min.

  • cattle: 50-70, horse: 32-40, small ru: 70-80/90, dog: 110-130.

• Temperature

  • cattle: 37,5-39

  • horse: 37,5-38

  • Small ru: 38,5-40

  • dog: 37,5-38,5

1. Hair and skin Examination

A. Hair coat:

1. Integrity - no alopecia or atrichia

2. Color, corresponding to breed

3. surface - shininess, smoothness, soiling (shiny, smooth, clean)

4. ectoparasites

Individual hair:

elasticity, trichorrhexis (brittleness), trichoptilosis (splitting)

Healthy: coat integrity without changes, color acc. to breed, smooth, shiny, moist, elastic, no trichorrhexis, tricoptilosis and no ectoparasites.

sheep: whole, clean, color acc. to breed, no ectoparasites.

B. Skin examination:

1. Color

2. Integrity (can be changed by lesions/injuries)

3. elasticity (behind scapula or neck, upper eyelid in sheep)

4. Moisture (sweat and sebaceous gland activity)

   • sebaceous: oily covering of coat/skin, crust, fatty crust (normal: not oily/greasy)

   • examined on body (cattle, horse), ears (pigs), paws (dogs/cats). hyperhidrosis - overproduction.

5. temperature (symmetry on spots on body)

6. odor

7. changes in size

8. pruritus (itchiness)

9. Detection of efflorescence, ectoparasites, ringworm

Healthy: compact skin integrity, light red/pink color, no swelling, even temperature, normal sweat and sebaceous gland activity, odor typical for species, no pruritus, no efflorescences, ectoparasites and ringworm.

2. Examination of visible mucous membranes and eye

A) Mucous Membranes - check (1) oral, (2) nasal, (3) conjunctiva, (4) vaginal/preputial

1. color

2. smoothness

3. shininess

4. moisture

5. volume

6. integrity

7. discharge

8. efflorescence

Healthy: Pink, smooth, shiny, moist, no swelling, no injury, no discharge (some in bo), no efflorescence.

• Inflammation is called; conjunctivitis, rhinitis, stomatitis, vaginitis, posthitis. The mucous membranes are hyperaemic (red).

B) Eyes:

1. Surrounding area

   • Hair, swelling, lesions, injury, Parasites, Discharge

   • Healthy: No alopecia/atrichia, no swelling, no lesions/injuries, no parasites, normal amount of discharge

     • long-term discharge can lead to hair loss, depigmentation.

2. Eyelids

   • Size, position, symmetry, movement

   • healthy: Normal size, even position, symmetrical, movable

3. Conjunctiva & Third eyelid:

   • color, smoothness, shininess, moist, swelling, integrity, discharge, efflorescence.

   • Healthy: pink, smooth, moist, shiny, no swelling, no injury, no discharge, no efflorescence (third eyelid: normal position and shape).

4. Eyeball

   • Size, position, movement, direction of visual axis

   • Healthy: normophtalmus, normal position, no nystagmus, no strabismus

5. Sclera

   • Color, surface, episcleral vessels

   • Healthy: white, smooth, adequate dilated episcleral vessels

6. Cornea

   • Reflectiveness, smoothness, regularity, transparency, bulging, deposited material

   • healthy: Reflective, smooth, regular, transparent, no keratoglobus/keratoconus, no presence of material

     • keratitis - inflamed cornea

7. Iris

   • color, pigment, shape, pupillary reflex

   • healthy: color acc. to breed, normal pigmentation, isocoric shape, present pupillary reflex

8. Lens (examined with opthalmoscope or in daylight)

   • transparency, change of position

   • healthy: transparent, normal position

9. Eye function

   • wave hand in front of eye, touch cornea (with hair)

   • healthy: normal function

3. Examination of Lymphatic system

List of Lymph nodes and their shape:

1. Submandibular - walnut (cattle, dog), raspberry (horse)

2. Parotid - flat, elongated shape, not palpable (only cattle)

3. retropharyngeal - not palpable (cattle)

4. prescapular - fusiform (cattle & small ru)

5. prefemoral - fusiform (cattle & small ru)

6. mammary - plum shaped

7. scrotal - not palpable (cattle, small, ru, dogs and horse)

8. popliteal - pea-shaped (only in dog)

How to examine:

• size, shape, symmetry (hands on each side), tenderness, consistency, surface, structure, adhesion to underlying tissue, temperature

• Healthy:

  • anatomical size, shape according, symmetrical, no tenderness, firm-elastic consistency, normal temperature - same as surrounding parts, normal adhesion - movable against underlying tissue.

How to examine lymphatic vessels:

• Inspection and palpation (normally not possible)

Terms:

Lymphadenitis = inflammation of lymph node

lymphangitis = inflammation of lymph vessels

4. Examination of the cardiovascular system

History, peripheral circulation, heart.

A. Peripheral Circulatory system:

Inspection:

1. visible Mucous membranes - look for:

   • pallor (anemia, shock), hyperaemia (engorgement of b.v.), hemorrhages, cyanosis, swelling of conjunctivae, dryness (dehydration, fever).

2. Skin

   • color, size, elasticity

B. Arteries:

• frequency (normo/tachy/brady), rhythm (reg/irreg.), quality (size, strength, duration)

  • healthy: Normocardia, Regular pulse, uniform, of adequate strength.

  • quality:

    • horse: strong (cardiac function), soft (vascular tone)

    • Cattle: weak, strong

    • dog: strong, hard

C. Capillaries:

1. inspection of episcleral vessels (fullness, color, dilation)

   • check on eye

   • healthy: Adequately/moderately filled, in contrast to background

2. Palpation: CRT on oral mucosa (1-2 sec is normal)

D. Veins:

1. Fullness of superficial veins (ear/jugular)- venostasis test on jugular vein, visual subcutaneous abdominal

2. movement of abdominal and jugular vein

   healthy: abdominal (full), jugular (empty, negative venostasis test, undulating movement)

   • negative test: accumulation of blood above pressure point (normal)

E. Heart area:

Dog: 4th or 5th ICS

Horse: 3rd-6th ICS

Cattle/small ru: 3-4th ICS

1. Inspection: Chest shape, deformities, elbow abduction, chest wall vibrations

   • Healthy: normal chest shape, no elbow abduction, no vibrations

2. Palpation: Palpate both sides 3rd-6th ICS

   • check for tenderness, temperature, tremor

   • Healthy: Even temp., no tenderness, no tremors

3. Percussion (left side, dytt foten litt fram):

   • Size

   • sensitivity/tender

   • type of sound alteration

     • relative dull (ru, su, fe), absolute dull (eq, ca)

   • healthy: Normal size, no pain, sound typical for species

F. Heart: (located - eq (3-6 ICS left), dog (4-5 ICS left), Bo (3-4 ICS left)

1. Palpation: frequency, rhythm, presence of fremitus

   • Healthy: normocardia, regular rhythm, no fremitus

2. Auscultation sounds:

   • healthy: Lub-Dub (S1-S2)

   • S3 in some horse, s4 in large animals detected by phonocardiography

   Heart sound - FIRDA:

   • frequency

   • intensity

   • rhythm

   • demarcation (clarity of onset/offset)

   • murmur

   Healthy: normocardia, intensive, regular rhythm (respiratory sinus arrhythmia in borubon), distinctive terminated sounds, no abnormal sounds.

5. Examination of respiratory system

A. Audovisual examination:

• Frequency (inspection/auscultation of trachea or chest)

  • Cattle: 10-30, horse: 8-16, small ru: 12-30, dog: 10-30

• Type of breathing (costoabdominal, abdominal, costal)

  • Costal - racehorse, dog dominant

  • abdominal - ru dominant

  • costoabdominal (mixed) usually

• Rhythm (eupnoe = normal/abnormal)

• Intensity

• depth (normal/dyspnea)

  • dyspnea: changes in depth, breathing, distressed

• symmetry (symmetrical/asymmetrical)

Healthy: Normopnea, costoabdominal (ru more abdominal, car more costal), eupnoea, intensive, normal depth, symmetric, no dyspnea

B. Upper Respiratory System:

1. Breath from nostrils: Using back of hand → checking:

   • Intensity, symmetry, volume, odor

     Healthy: intensive, symmetrical, normal volume, odor species specific

2. Nose/Muzzle surroundings:

   • nose: symmetry, deformation, swelling

   • Muzzle: moistness, shininess, smoothness, discharge

   Healthy: moist, shiny, some/no discharge (bo - normal with serous discharge), smooth, no lesions

   • symmetrical, no deformities, no swelling of nose

3. Nostrils:

   • color, surface, efflorescence, discharge

   Healthy: pink, smooth, no efflorescence, some serous discharge

4. Nasal mucosa

   Healthy: pink, smooth, shiny, moist, no swelling, no injuries, some serous discharge, no efflorescence

5. Nasal and paranasal cavities:

   • inspection: size, shape, symmetry, injury

   • palpation: tenderness, consistency

   • percussion: tenderness, percutoric sound

   Healthy: normal size and shape, symmetric, no injury, no pain, hard consistency on palpation, no pain and clear percutoric sound on percussion.

   • Tapping on sinuses - maxillary (cranially ventrally) and frontal (bw. eyes)

6. Guttural pouches: inspection + palpation in eq

7. Pharynx and Larynx:

   • Inspection: size, shape, symmetry

   • palpation: consistency, tenderness

     healthy: normal shape and size, symmetric, elastic consistency (pharynx), firm-elastic (larynx), no pain

8. Trachea:

   • inspection: size, shape

   • palpation: tenderness, consistency

   • auscultation: breathing sounds

   • special: bronchoscopy, transtracheal lavage

     Healthy: normal shape and size, no pain, firm-elastic consistency, louder inspiration.

Lower Respiratory Tract:

1. Topography:

   • cow/dog: right side: 11 ICS-9ICS-olecranon. Left side: 12 ICS - 9 ICS - olecranon.

   • Horse: 16ICS-11ICS-olecranon

   • dog:

2. Inspection of thorax:

   • Size

   • symmetry

   • local changes

   • breathing movements

   • type of breathing

   • movement of ICS

   Healthy: symmetrical walls, balanced ICS, size appropriate to species

3. Palpation of thorax (fist or fingers in ICS):

   • temperature, tenderness, consistency, tremor, pain, crepitation, reaction of animal

   Healthy: even temp., no pain, elastic, no tremor, no crepitation

4. Auscultation of breath sounds (listen to 2-3 cycles at each):

   • Nasal cavity, larynx, trachea (turbulent sound)

   • bronchioles - thoracic (quiet, laminar sound)

   • Frequency, intensity, duration, abnormal sounds

   Healthy of thorax: laminar air flow without any abnormalities.

5. Percussion: In ICS, from top to bottom or side to side, 2 taps each place

   • size, percutoric sound, tenderness

   healthy: normal size, resonant percutoric sound, no pain

6. Examination of GIT

1. Diet: Appearance, color, odor, consistency, quantity, composition, structure, frequency of feeding, time

   • Appetite - good/inappetence/anorexia

   • Feed intake - movement of lips, jaw, mandible

   • Salivation - normo/hyper/oligosialia (cattle secrete 12L per kg dry feed/day)

   • Fluid intake, rumination, eructation, regurgitation + vomiting.

   Healthy: normal diet, appetite, feed-intake, saliva, fluid-intake.

   • physiological, chewing, swallowing.

2. Head - inspect & palpate

   • normal: no swelling or injury

3. Oral cavity and pharynx

   • odor of oral cavity (normal according to diet)

   • Then we inspect:

     • tone of jaw muscles, Mucous membranes, teeth, tongue (color, movement, pain, consistency, covering, injuries)

       Healthy:

     • normotonous (of muscles)

     • pink, smooth, shiny, moist, no swelling, no injuries, no discharge and no efflorescence (of MM)

     • teeth acc. to species and age, white, no/some tartar.

     • Tongue is pink, movable, painless, firm-elastic, uncovered, no injuries/lesions

4. Pharynx: size, shape, changes/swelling, tenderness (look externally)

   • healthy: normal size and shape, no swelling, no pain

5. Esophagus:

   • inspection: swallowing, bolus movement, gas released observed in left jug. groove

   • palpation: tenderness and consistency (not palpable)

6. Abdomen:

   • inspection: from behind in large animals, from above in small

     • size and symmetry

     • monogastric (symmetrical) while polygastric - ru (asymmetrical) - apple shape left, pear shape right.

   • palpation: fullness, tenderness, tension (eq + ca normally tense during palpation)

   • Percussion: pain, location and extent, percutoric sound

   • Auscultation: peristalsis

7. Rumen - q7.

   • normal: normal fullness and contour, doughy consistency, no tenderness, damped percutoric sound, normal frequency

   • intensity and duration of rumen contractions: Cattle + goat: 7-14, sheep: 6-16 per 5 min.

8. Reticulum - Q9.

   • normal: no tenderness, dull percutoric sound, normal frequency (5-7 per 5 min), quality of reticular contractions, no foreign bodies.

9. Omasum (right: 7-9th ICS)

   • palpate for tenderness, percussion - damped sound, auscultate in 10th ICS for quiet sounds of leaves motility (7-8 times/5min). Puncture fluid evaluation for assessing motility - 9th ICS.

   • Normal: no pain, damped percutoric sound, quiet leave sounds in auscultation.

10. Abomasum (11-12th ICS right side)

    • inspection: size

    • palpation: behind costal arch, right side - pain and consistency

    • auscultation - should be quiet normally

      • If abomasal displacement is suspected → perform auscultation with percussion and swinging auscultation

      • percutoric auscultation: stethoscope in 11th or 12th ICS, with fingers tapping around. → for hearing metallic percussion sound (bad) → perform swinging

    • normal: normal size, no pain, elastic consistency, quiet auscultation sound

11. Stomach (Only palpation in su and car)

    • inspection: size

    • palpation: size, elastic consistency, tenderness, foreign bodies

    • normal: normal size, elastic, no tenderness or foreign bodies.

12. Intestines - topography:

    • cow: right side (SI ventrally, cecum dorsally)

    • Horse:

      • right: cecum caudally, large colon cranially

      • left: small colon and flexura pelvina of large colon

    • car: SI right side, LI left side

13. Intestines - palpation, percussion, auscultation:

    • palpation: tenderness + tension (rigid in eq + ca)

    • percussion: tenderness, percutoric sound

      • bo: tympanic, subtympanic dorsally, dampened ventrally

      • eq: completely damped

      • ca: tympanic

    • Auscultation:

      • eq: clear loud sound. SI = splashing, bubbling. LI = roaring

      • ru, dog, pig: quiet auscultatory sound

14. Defecation: posture and frequency (eq - 8-20, bo-12-24, ca-1-3 a day)

15. Feces: color (herb - green/brown, ca - brown), consistency (solid, pasty, porridge, watery, mucous), surface (mucoid in horse), odor, comminution degree in herb (high), abnormal content, microscopy.

7. Examination of the rumen in cow

Location of rumen: whole left side of abominal cavity

1. inspection: fullness and contour evaluation by scoring system: 1 (deeply hollow) → 5 (heavily filled rumen)

   • normal: 3

2. Palpation: fist in left flank hollow

   • frequency, intensity, consistency, pain

   • normal: doughy consistency, no pain

3. Percussion: combined with palpation

   • fullness, tenderness

   • layering: content - consistency - percutoric sound

     • gas - elastic - tympanic

     • roughage - doughy - relatively damped

     • fluid - elastic - absolute damped

     • sediment - elastic - dull

4. Auscultation:

   • rumen contractions per 5 min: frequency, rhythm, duration - normal

     • cattle and goat: 7-14/5min

     • sheep: 6-16/5 min

8. Examination of the rumen fluid in the cow

Collection: 3-4h after feeding by oral passage of metallic Thygesen/esophageal tube, collection by syringe, attach it to the tube → aspirate → into warmed double jacket container.

• Filtrate rumen fluid through cotton for sensory examination. Centrifuge for chemical examination.

• Examine within 1-2 hours after collection, including sensory, chemical and microscopic.

1. Sensory examination

   • color: various mix of green/brown

     • pathologic color: milk grey (grain overfeeding), darker green (ruminal stasis), grey with clots of milk (abomasal reflux calves).

   • consistency: watery, slightly viscous

   • odor: aromatic, non-repellent

2. Microscopical:

   • One drop of the fluid onto slide → 10x

   • density, motility of protozoa, proportions (L, M, S)

3. Chemical:

   • pH: 5,5-7

     • over 7 - during starvation, inactive microflora, urea poisoning, alkalosis etc.

     • below 6 - overfeeding of easily digestible carbs.

   • total acidity: 17-29 titration units

   • volatile FA: 80-120

   • Cl conc: < 25 mmol/L

   • lactic acid: 0.3 - 3.3 mmol/L

9. Examination of reticulum in the cow

Location: behind olecranon, left side, 6-8th rib

1. Palpation: not-palpable, but in area of xiphoid cartilage, laterally behind diaphragm in lower third of chest.

   • fist pressure on both sides → evaluate pain

2. Percussion: below lung field - 6-8th rib

   • diagnostic value in foreign body disease

   • normal: dull sound - resonant in lung field

   • painful and box sound in case of reticuloperitonitis

3. Auscultation: 10cm behind elbow both sides, behind 7th rib

   • Check: number and quality of reticulum contractions: 5-7/5min

     • biphasic contraction: one leading to rumen and one gives fluid to omasum

     • weak crushing/swishing sound

Test for foreign bodies in reticulum:

Principle: cause or increase pain

1. back grip: grab skin fold over withers. Inspiration = inflamed area moves = animal shows pain or interrupts expiration

   • normal breathing = no pain

2. pole tests: 2 people place metal pole on ventral part of

   abdomen. From sternum to udder. Lift pole then suddenly lower. 3rd person observe signs of pain.

3. Pressure on reticulum: press with fist with support of knee.

4. Percussion: percutoric sound and no pain (pain + box sound = traumatic peritonitis)

5. downhill or circlic movement: animal refuses to move down slope or in a circle = pain. Little diag. value.

6. ferroscopy: detect metal object by ferrite magnet being swallowed.

Other: zone test (low diag. value, create small skin fold in painful area), Ultrasound

Positive test: grunting, teeth grinding, interruption of expiration, sweating, incr. movement of an animal or kicking towards the painful area.

Inflammatory pain (traumatic reticuloperitonitis), injury pain (penetrating foreign bodies)

10. Examination of Liver

Topography:

• Bo: 11-12 th ICS right side

• Eq: not in contact with wall

• sRU: right side, same as cattle, might extend beyond costal arch

• Ca: right side: 10-13th rib, left side.: 10-12th rib (palpate laying on back)

1. Inspection:

   • Looking at sclera, skin mucous membranes (jaundice)

   • Neurological signs - depression, coma

   • Nutritional state - anorexia, weakness, poor nutrition, colic (abdominal pain - kicking)

   • edema formation (fall in plasma protein)

   • ascites - accumulation of fluid, abdominocentesis.

   • hemoglobinuria

   • Feces change (steatorrhea, diarrhea)

2. Palpation (not in horse):

   • size, position, pain, consistency (firm-elastic)

   • non-palpable in healthy cows - palpable in very thin cows or in case of enlarged liver

3. Percussion:

   • ru: 11-12th ICS

   • ca: 10-13th ICS

   • dull percutoric sound, size, tenderness

4. Special examination:

   • biopsy (horse: 12-14th ICS, cattle: 10th ICS)

   • USG, MRI, CT, laproscopy

5. Lab methods: biochemical (conc. of bilirubin, hepatic enzymes)

   • Liver enzymes increases:

     1. ALT (alanine transaminase - liver necrosis)

     2. AST (aspartate aminotransferase - liver damage)

     3. LDH (lactate dehydrogenase

     4. ALP (alkaline phosphatase - cholestasis)

     5. GMD (glutamic dehydrogenase - liver damage)

6. Icterus:

   • pre-hepatic - hemolytic

   • hepatic - liver damage

   • obstructive - problem with bile system

spleen: not extending costal arch, located on left side - normal. can examine by special - like USG or x-ray.

11. Examination of the urinary system

Topography:

Anamnesis: info about water intake, urinary behavior, changes in volume and quality of urine.

1. Inspection:

   • Posture

   • Frequency

   • changes in amount and quality

   • free of pain/dysuria

     Normal: normal posture, frequency + volume of urination.

2. Palpation:

   • rectal examination in large animals, external in small

   • size, pain/tenderness, consistency (firm elastic), surface (smooth)

3. Percussion (ONLY CATTLE)

   • right kidney, size and pain

   • dull sound without enlargement and pain.

4. Special examination: X-ray, USG, renal function test

   • biopsy (bovine, left behind costal arch 5-10cm below 1st lumbar).

5. Ureters: normally not palpable, can feel rectally if ureteritis.

6. Urinary bladder palpation: rectal examination in large, through abd. wall in small

   • size - according to fullness

   • adhesions - no

   • consistency - elastic

   • pain/tenderness

   • presence of foreign bodies

     (normal size, elastic, no pain, no foreign)

     special: USG, Cystoscopy-color, bladder mucosa, x-ray

     inflammation = cystitis.

7. Urethra:

   • Females: Inspect vaginal cavity - orificium urethrae with vaginal speculum, digital palpation/urethroscopy - size, shape, injuries, lesions and foreign objects

   • males: urehtroscopy, palpation of penis, perineal area - consistency (elastic), pain

12. Examination of the urine

1) Urine collection:

• Horse & cattle: spontaneous, catheterisation and induced urination (stroking vulva/perineum (cow/mare), stroking preputial sac (bull), glove in front of nostrils/mouth in small ru for 30-60s).

• Dog: spontaneous, catheterisation & cystocentesis

2) Sensory urinalysis:

• colour - yellow (urochrome)

• transparency - transparent, cloudy in horse

• consistency - water, viscous in horse

• odour - pleasant in herbivores (aromatic odor of urine of ruminants), unpleasant in carnivores, fruity smell = ketosis

• abnormal content

• specific gravity: 1.010-1.065

3) Chemical Urinalysis: (By pH strip and PHAN papers)

• pH: ru and eq: 7-8, car: 5-7

• proteins-low to none

• enzymes - none

• glucose - none

• ketones - minimal

• bile pigments - bilirubin and urobilinogen

4) Microscopic Urinalysis:

• Organic sediment: cells, bacteria

• Inorganic sediments: crystals

Cattle & horse: calcium carbonate, calcium oxalate, calcium sulphate and others are found.

Dog: phosphates, urates, cysteine, oxalates are found.

• Calcium oxalate = antifreeze poisoning

• ammonium biurate = liver failure

• cysteine uroliths = congenital, tubular defect

13. Examination of locomotor system

1) Posture: Seen from cranial, caudal, lateral position

• Regular/irregular

  • Stiffness: muscle disorders

  • Kneeling: pain in distal parts of limbs (fracture. laminitis)

  • Crossing of legs: fractures of claws (ru, pig)

  • Dog sitting position: acute gastric dilatation in horse, achilles/hamstring tendon rupture, nutritional muscular dystrophy, paraparesis

2) Position

• Normal: Animal is able to stand up without assistance

• Test with external stimuli

• cattle: hindlimbs first, horse: forelimbs first

3) Movement/Locomotion “Rabbits run fast downhill”

• make animal walk - evaluate rate, range, force, and direction (normal: even length + direction of steps)

• Locomotor scoring system:

  1. Normal gait

  2. mild lameness (stand with flat back, arched when walking)

  3. moderate lameness (stand and walk with arched back)

  4. lameness (shifting weight from affected leg)

  5. severe lameness (cannot walk on affected legs)

4) Muscles

• Inspection: size and shape - normothrophy and symmetrical

• Palpation: muscle tone, pain, temperature

  • normotonus, no pain, even temperature

5) Bones

• Inspection: shape and contour - normal shape and contour

• Palpation: consistency, sensitivity, crepitation

  • hard consistency, no pain and no crepitation

6) Joints

• Inspection: size and shape, extent of bending and flexing

  • normal size and shape, regular flexing and bending

• Palpation: temperature, pain, consistency

  • even temp., no pain, consistency

• special examination: x-ray, examination of puncture fluid (collection of synovial fluid, normal: clear, colorless (yellowish opalescence), no smell, coagulates in 48h)

7) Foot examination

• Inspection: normal size, shape

• palpation: no tenderness

• percussion

• pressure test or probe

14. Examination of the nervous system

A. Skull and Spine

1. Inspection:

   • changes on Skull cover: volume, loss of substance, integrity, pain, flexibility of bone base

     • normal: normal size, shape and position, stiffness, no loss of substance, normal integrity, no pain

   • changes of spine and neck: Lordosis (inward curvature), scoliosis, kyphosis, Opisthotonus (head + neck arched backwards)

   • generally: size, shape, position, stiffness

2. Palpation: tenderness, consistency

3. Percussion: tenderness

B. Sensorium

• Consciousness: bright/alert

  • deviations: depression or excitation

C. Sensitivity

1. Superficial

   a) pricking skin along whole body

   b) Pinch interdigital skin/skin above hooves

   In ru: interdigital spaces with hoof testing pliers or blunt end of percutoric hammer. (Normal: present)

2. Deep

   a) Bending head and neck to one side

   b) crossing legs

   small animals:

   • Wheel barrowing (forelimbs)

   • Hopping (forelimbs)

   • Proprioceptive positioning (all limbs)

   • Extensor postural thrust (hindlimbs)

   • Placing (forelimbs)

3. Sensory

   a) Eye - vision loss = amaurosis

   b) hearing - anacusia (no hearing)

   c) smell - anosmia (no smell)

   Described: normal, exaggerated, diminished or absent.

D. Reflexes - cranial nerves (10)

1. menace - vision

2. palpebral - medial canthus of eye

3. mandibular touch

4. vibrissae - touch upper lip

5. auricular - touch ear

6. corneal - touch cornea with hair

7. pupillary - by light

8. oculocephalic - move head to one side, move quick to other side (nystagmus)

9. Gag - touch larynx

10. tongue movement and symmetry

F. Reflexes - spinal cutaneous nerves:

• Panniculus - examined by irritating skin by sharp object along spine and hips

• withdrawal - interdigital pinch/hoof (positive - withdrawal of foot)

• anal/perineal reflex - touch around anus

G. Reflexes - Spinal limb (ONLY CAR!)

Front limb:

• Triceps - tap tendon over olecranon

• extensor carpi radialis - tap dorsolateral on leg

  

• flexor - stretch limb maximally and release → flex

Hind limb:

• patellar - tap patellar ligament

• cranialis tibialis - dorsolateral part of leg

• flexor - stretch limb max. and release → flex

H. Motor disturbances: no qualitative (ataxia) or quantitative (paralysis, spasms, tremors, nystagmus, or forced movement), disturbances present.

15. examination of the mammary gland

Anatomy of Mammary gland

• Cattle: 4 glands, one lactiferous duct per

• Horse: 2 glands, 2 lactiferous ducts per

Anamnesis:

• Previous lactation (milk yield, prev. disease)

• stage of lactation (1st, 2nd, 3rd, dry-period)

• Zoo hygienic conditions

• Previous and current problems in the herd

A. Inspection udder:

1. Shape: key shaped optimal

   • abdominal, large, caudal, round, stepped, goat-like, primitive

2. Size: medium and large optimal (L, M, S)

3. Symmetry: fore-hind asymmetry, right-left symmetry - right is smaller (seen from behind in healthy), left-right symmetry - left is smaller.

4. Skin: Color, soiling, hair, temperature, efflorescence, injuries, ectoparasities

   • normal: pink, unsoiled, reasonable hair, even temp., no efflorescence, injuries or ectoparasites

B. Inspection of teats:

1. shape: cylindrical optimal

   • other: Bottle-like, pencil-like, conical, short, collapsed, fleshy

2. Size: 8-10cm

3. surface: smooth

4. number: according to species

   • supernumerary teat: cranial, accessory, intermediate

5. Teat end: normal with rounded tip

   • other: dished teat with flat tip, funner or crater, shaped, pocket, pointed

6. Dripping from teats, hygiene under udder, behavior of animal

C. Palpation of Udder: Palpate after milking from right side, palpate symmetrically with both hands

• Parenchyma (normal case): structure (fine-grained), consistency (soft-elastic), no pain, temperature the same as environment

• if mastitis: structure is non-palpable, firm consistency.

D. Palpation of teats and lnn.

• Teats and cisterns are painless, elastic, sphincter is firm-elastic

• Lymph nodes: no enlarged, plum-shaped, symmetrical, firm-elastic, homogenous, smooth, painless

E. Examination of secretions

1)Sensory:

• Volume, color (white, milky, colostrum = yellow), consistency (water/milky), odor (typical), abnormal contents (blood, flakes, fibrin, pus, blood clots, serous secretion).

2)California Test:

• 1ml sample + 1 ml test, coagulation/gelification occurs if positive. (incr. somatic cells, red color).

  • Plastic paddle: A right front, B right hind, C left front, D left hind

3)Chemical:

• pH (6-4-6.8)

• Cl conc. < 1.5g/L (incr. in mastitis)

• Fat: circa 3.5%

• lactose: circa 4%

• Proteins: casein - 2.7%, globulins 0.1%

16. Topography of the horse

1. Lung field: dorsal line, 16 ICS - 11th ICS - olecranon

2. Kidneys:

   • Right: heart-shaped, firmly attached. Last 3 ribs → L1

   • Left: L1 → L3, looser attached

3. Heart:

   • Right: 3-4 ICS

   • Left: 3-5 ICS

4. Liver and intestines:

   • Right side: cecum caudally, large colon cranially, in front of cecum

   • left side: small colon dorsally, flexura pelvina of large colon ventrally

   • Liver: in concavity of diaphragm

17. Topography of the cattle

Lungs:

• right side: dorsal line, 11th ICS - 9th ICS - olecranon

• Left side: dorsal line, 12th ICS - 9th ICS - olecranon

Kidney:

• Right: last rib → L2/L3

• Left: depends on rumen content, from L3/L4

Heart:

• 3-4th ICS left side

Liver:

• 11th-12 ICS right side

Stomach:

• Right side:

  • Abomasum: 11th-12th ICS (immediately behind costal arch ventrally)

  • Omasum: 7-9 ics (15 cm diameter)

• Left side:

  • rumen: all over

  • reticulum: 6-8 ICS

Intestines:

• Small intestine: ventrally

• cecum between SI and Colon (right side)

• colon: dorsally