English Language theorists/studies

Joanna Thornborrow theory

One of the most fundamental ways we have of establishing our identity is through our use of language

Social Identity Theory (Tajfel and Turner)

When an in group identity is made, people wish to emphasise these characteristics by using sociolect.

In/Out Groups (Giles and Coupland)

In groups are social categories with which individuals identify strongly. Out groups are social categories not identified with, marked by lack of sociolectal familiarity.

Social Network Theory (Milroy)

Networks are either closed, (everyone knows each other) or open, (people are less famimiliar with each other)

Overt Prestige (Labov)

Prestige associated with abiding by social norms, using RP accent

Covert Prestige (Labov)

Prestige gained by flouting social norms and values, yet is advantageous in certain groups

Accomodation theory (Giles)

Speakers adjust speech to suit other participants in conversation

Upwards convergance

Speaker of low status makes language more formal to greet someone og high status

Downwards convergence

Speaker speaks more colloquial and informal to decrease status for other speaker

Mutual convergence

Both speakers converge linguistically to ‘meet in the middle’

Divergence

Speakers style of speech move further apart, increasing social distance

Restricted code, Bernstein

Informal simplified language used when audience share similar interests, experiences etc.

Elaborated code, Bernstein

Extensive more complex language used when people are less familiar

Anti-language, Halliday

Extreme versions of sociolect used when people are in a marginalized community that places them outside the law.

Teenage talk, Stenstrom

Language of teens, like irregular turn taking, indistinct articulation, word shortening, verbal duelling

Language and teen peer groups, Eckert

Teenagers mark use of linguistics features such as ‘like’ and ‘okay’, rising intonation etc.

Labov's Martha's Vineyard

Study on an island in US, found people changed their diphthong /ai/ and /au/ to differentiate themselves from mainlanderd and tourists.

Audience Design Theory - Bell

Speaker designs/shapes their language to take audience into account. 4 types of audience: Addressees (ratified, directly addressed), Auditors (ratified, not directly addressed), Overhearers (non ratified, detectable), Eavesdroppers (Non ratified, undetectable)

Footing

A speakers ‘stance’ towards another participant in a conversation

Facework - Goffman

Linguistics endeavour to present ourselves favourably to gain social status

Face - Goffman

The social value a person claims for themself in an interpersonal contact

Positive face - Goffman

Our need to be liked and accepted, we try to satisfy the positive face of others by giving them compliments etc.

Negative face - Goffman

Our right not to be imposed or interrupted

Face threatening act (FTA) - Goffman

Communicative acts which undermine a speakers need to be respected and maintain status. They can ‘dent’ another speakers face, diminishing their social standing

Politeness theory - Browne and Levinson

Strategies developed to save the hearers ‘face’

Positive politeness - Browne and Levinson

Strategies to minimise social distance between speaker and audience

Negative politeness - Browne and Levinson

Strategies to minimise the effects of unavoidable FTA’s, may invlove mitigation

Code-switching

Shifting from the use of one linguistic variety to another

Diglossia

Two linguistic varieties existing side by side in a community; one ‘high’ and one ‘low’, and switching between them purposely

Lexical classification of sociolect - Julie Coleman

Slang - Colloquial lexis often used in an in-group, Jargon - Professional and official lexis allowing for precision, Cant - Lexis used to obscure meaning from an out group, extreme slang

Talk at Work - Drew and Heritage

Identified some key differences between institutional talk and everyday language such as; goal orientation, turn-taking rules or restrictions, allowable contributions, professional lexis, structure, asymmetry

Politeness at the Workplace - Holmes and Stubbe

Suggested that a lot of workplace talk is embedded in its social/organisational context. Co-workers make assumptions about background, and knowledge of jargon.

Institutional Power Imbalances - Habermas

Said that ‘language is a medium of domination and social force. It serves to legitimise relations of organised power’ Says that language legitimises mistreatment (asymmetry)

Communities of Practice - Wenger

The idea that all workplaces could be described as communities of practice: ‘groups who regularly engage with each other in the service of a joint enterprise, and who share a repertoire of resources which enables them to communicate in a kind of verbal shorthand which is often very difficult for outsiders to penetrate’

Officialese and Enlistic varieties - Levy

The suggestion that there are two specialised varieties in military language. A ‘high‘ variety that is formal, includes high levels of jargon, euphemistic and constructed by those with the highest status, and a ‘low’ variety that is more emotional and colloquial.