AP euro chapter 16

Scientific Revolution

A period of significant advancements in scientific thought, primarily in Europe, from the 16th to 18th centuries.

Humanism

A Renaissance intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievements, emphasizing learning for practical applications.

Natural Philosophy

Early form of science, largely based on Aristotle's ideas, focusing on understanding the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned.

Geocentrism

The belief that Earth is the center of the universe, surrounded by celestial spheres.

Heliocentrism

The theory proposed by Copernicus that the Sun is at the center of the universe, with planets orbiting around it.

Epicycles

Small circular motions that planets make while orbiting a larger path, part of Ptolemy's model of the universe.

Law of Universal Gravitation

Newton's law that every mass attracts every other mass with a force that is proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Alchemy

A precursor to modern chemistry, involving mystical practices, such as attempts to turn base metals into gold.

Botany

The study of plants, particularly important during the age of exploration for discovering useful plants.

Classification

Carl Linnaeus's system for organizing living organisms, foundational to modern taxonomy.

Aristotle

Ancient Greek philosopher whose geocentric model and ideas on physics heavily influenced scientific thought before the Scientific Revolution.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Proposed the heliocentric model, challenging geocentric views and laying groundwork for modern astronomy.

Tycho Brahe

Collected extensive astronomical data and observations, paving the way for future discoveries.

Johannes Kepler

Formulated three laws of planetary motion, supporting the heliocentric theory.

Galileo Galilei

Used telescopes to make significant astronomical discoveries, supporting Copernicus's theory, and developed the law of inertia.

Isaac Newton

Unified physics and mathematics, developing the law of universal gravitation and three laws of motion.

Francisco Hernández

Documented new plants from the New World, contributing to botanical knowledge in Europe.

Carl Linnaeus

Developed a classification system for organisms, influencing biological sciences.

Empiricism

The theory that all knowledge originates from experience, advocated by Bacon, emphasizing observation and experimentation.

Inductive Reasoning

A method of reasoning in which general principles are derived from specific observations, championed by Francis Bacon.

Deductive Reasoning

A method of reasoning from general principles to reach specific conclusions, supported by René Descartes.

Cartesian Dualism

Descartes's philosophy dividing existence into two realms: mind (the spiritual) and matter (the physical).

Analytic Geometry

A branch of mathematics, developed by Descartes, linking algebra and geometry.

Four Humors

The ancient belief that health was maintained by balancing blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile, based on the teachings of Galen.

Boyle's Law

A principle formulated by Robert Boyle stating that the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume.

Scientific Method

A systematic approach to inquiry, combining inductive and deductive reasoning to gather and test knowledge about the natural world.

Salons

Social gatherings, often led by women, where intellectuals discussed science, philosophy, and other subjects.

Francis Bacon

English philosopher who promoted empirical research and inductive reasoning as a way to acquire knowledge.

René Descartes

French philosopher and mathematician who developed deductive reasoning and introduced Cartesian dualism.

Paracelsus

Swiss physician and alchemist who advocated for chemical treatments and rejected the four humors theory.

Andreas Vesalius

Pioneering anatomist whose dissections and detailed anatomical drawings revolutionized understanding of the human body.

William Harvey

English physician who discovered the circulation of blood, describing the heart as a pump.

Robert Boyle

Chemist and physicist known for Boyle's law, and for advancing experimental methods in chemistry.

Pope Urban VIII

Pope initially sympathetic to Galileo's work, later sanctioning his trial for heresy due to heliocentric beliefs.

Rationalism

A method of thinking in which beliefs are accepted only through reason, rejecting faith-based claims.

Progress

The Enlightenment ideal that humanity could improve and create better societies through reason and science.

Skepticism

The belief, introduced by Pierre Bayle, that nothing can be known with complete certainty.

Sensationalism

John Locke's theory that all ideas and thoughts stem from sensory impressions.

Deism

The belief in a God who created the universe but does not intervene; common among Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire.

Separation of Powers

Montesquieu's concept of dividing government power across different branches to prevent tyranny.

Republic of Letters

A network of intellectuals across Europe and beyond who exchanged ideas, expanding Enlightenment thought.

Catholic Enlightenment

A movement within the Catholic Church aiming to reform and renew through a combination of reason and faith.

Sapere Aude

Latin for 'dare to know,' Kant's call to use reason courageously in the pursuit of enlightenment.

Pierre Bayle

French Huguenot and skeptic, author of Historical and Critical Dictionary, who questioned religious beliefs and advocated for doubt.

Baruch Spinoza

Dutch philosopher who saw God and nature as one and believed human behavior was shaped by external causes, not free will.

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz

Philosopher who argued that this world was the 'best of all possible worlds.'

John Locke

English philosopher who introduced the theory that ideas derive from experience, shaping Enlightenment thought on human knowledge.

Montesquieu

Philosopher who advocated for the separation of powers in government to protect liberty.

Voltaire

French philosophe and deist who advocated for religious tolerance and was skeptical of democracy, favoring enlightened monarchy.

Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert

Editors of the Encyclopedia, a monumental work that disseminated Enlightenment ideas across Europe.

David Hume

Scottish philosopher who argued that human ideas are a result of sensory experiences, challenging the certainty of reason.

Adam Smith

Economist who promoted free markets in The Wealth of Nations, arguing that competition and individual autonomy foster civic virtue.

Immanuel Kant

German philosopher who argued for the public use of reason while upholding monarchical authority and religious faith.

Cesare Beccaria

Italian reformer who criticized torture and capital punishment, advocating for criminal justice reform.

French Protestants (Huguenots)

Published works criticizing religious intolerance and absolute monarchy.

John Locke's theory of knowledge

Argued that all ideas come from experience, with the mind as a blank slate at birth, shaped by sensory impressions.

Montesquieu's view of government

Argued for the separation of powers within government to prevent tyranny.

Checks and balances

A system promoted by Montesquieu to ensure a balanced governance structure.

Voltaire's preference for a 'good monarch'

Believed an enlightened monarch could provide stability and justice better than democratic systems.

The Encyclopedia

Collected and disseminated Enlightenment ideas, encouraging critical thinking and promoting secular and scientific knowledge.

David Hume's contribution

Emphasized that human ideas stem solely from sensory experiences, challenging faith in pure reason.

Adam Smith's argument

Argued for free-market principles, claiming that competition and individual autonomy foster civic virtue.

Immanuel Kant's definition of enlightenment

Defined as the courage to use one's reason independently ('Sapere Aude').

Cesare Beccaria's reforms

Argued against torture, arbitrary imprisonment, and capital punishment, advocating for a humane penal system.

Confucianism

A Chinese ethical and philosophical system embraced by some Enlightenment thinkers for its moral values discovered through reason.

Scientific Racism

The classification of human races in a hierarchy, used to justify ideas of racial superiority and practices like slavery.

Querelle des Dames

'The woman question' or debate over women's societal roles and intellectual capabilities.

Rococo

An artistic style marked by soft colors, delicate details, and sentimental themes, associated with the salons and feminine spaces of the Enlightenment.

Natural Laws of Gender

The belief that women's societal roles were defined by their biological characteristics.

Leibniz

Philosopher and mathematician who corresponded with Jesuits in China, admiring Chinese philosophy as morally advanced.

Mary Wortley Montagu

Writer who challenged European stereotypes, portraying Ottoman Turks as civilized.

Carl von Linné

Swedish botanist who classified nature into hierarchies, influencing racial classifications.

James Beattie

Scottish philosopher who challenged ideas of white superiority, pointing out European origins as 'savage.'

Olaudah Equiano

Former slave who published a memoir detailing the horrors of slavery and arguing for human equality.

Marquis de Condorcet

Enlightenment thinker who argued for women's rights and equality.

Mary Astell

Early feminist who advocated for women's education and critiqued the institution of marriage.

Madame de Pompadour

Mistress of Louis XV, influential patron of the arts, associated with the popularization of the rococo style.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Philosopher who argued for 'natural laws' defining gender roles, promoting the idea of women's passivity.

Enlightenment debate over women's roles

The debate, rooted in the querelle des dames, focused on women's intellectual abilities and societal roles.

Condorcet's position

Condorcet argued that women deserved equal rights.

Astell's position

Astell advocated for women's education and criticized marriage as limiting.

Rococo style

Rococo, characterized by pastel colors, ornamental detail, and themes of romance, was often associated with feminine spaces like salons.

Rousseau's view on gender roles

Rousseau argued that women's roles were defined by their reproductive functions, promoting a view of women as passive and subordinate.

Kant's application of natural laws

Kant and others applied 'natural laws' to justify racial hierarchies, suggesting that non-Europeans were naturally inferior.

Olaudah Equiano's role

Former slaves like Equiano provided firsthand accounts that exposed the brutal realities of slavery, directly challenging Enlightenment contradictions regarding freedom and human rights.

Enlightened Absolutism

A form of absolute monarchy influenced by Enlightenment ideals, where rulers implemented reforms for the welfare of their subjects while retaining strong centralized control.

Cameralism

A political theory that held monarchy as the best government form, where all societal elements should serve the state, which in turn should work to improve society.

The Haskalah

The Jewish Enlightenment movement in Europe, led by thinkers like Moses Mendelssohn, advocating for Jewish civil rights and societal integration.

The Pale of Settlement

A designated territory in the Russian Empire where most Jews were required to live, established by Catherine the Great.

Partitions of Poland

The division of Polish territory among Prussia, Austria, and Russia, resulting in the elimination of Poland as an independent state by 1795.

Frederick the Great

A Prussian king who embraced enlightened ideas by reforming education, law, and bureaucracy but upheld serfdom and aristocratic privilege.

Catherine the Great

A Russian empress who patronized Enlightenment culture and expanded Russian territory while suppressing serf uprisings and reinforcing noble privileges over serfs.

Maria Theresa of Austria

An Austrian monarch who strengthened the state through church and bureaucratic reforms, improving peasant rights while pursuing traditional state-building goals.

Joseph II of Austria

Maria Theresa's son, known for his radical reforms such as abolishing serfdom, which faced backlash and were later reversed.

Moses Mendelssohn

A leading figure in the Jewish Enlightenment, advocating for civil rights and religious tolerance for Jews in Europe.

Emelian Pugachev

A Cossack who led a major Russian peasant and serf rebellion against Catherine the Great, resulting in increased restrictions on serfs.

Leopold II of Austria

Joseph II's brother, who repealed many of Joseph's reforms, including the abolition of serfdom, in response to resistance.

Enlightenment thinkers and absolutism

Many Enlightenment thinkers believed that a benevolent absolute ruler could efficiently implement societal reforms for the common good.

Frederick the Great's reforms

Frederick the Great reformed the Prussian legal system by abolishing torture, improving bureaucracy, and promoting education and religious tolerance.

Catherine the Great's shift post-Pugachev's Rebellion

After Pugachev's Rebellion, she shifted focus toward consolidating noble authority over serfs, fearing further unrest.