PSY-101 Exam 3

Chapters 4, 9, and 12

Germinal Period

The period in prenatal development from conception to two weeks after fertilization of the egg, when the zygote divides rapidly and implants in the uterine wall.

Embryonic Period

The period in prenatal development from 2 to 3 weeks after conception, when the brain, spine, major organs, and bodily structures begin to form in the embryo.

Fetal Period

The period in prenatal development from 8 weeks after contraception until birth, when the brain continues developing, bodily structures are refined, and the fetus grows in length and weight and accumulates fat in preparation for birth.

Teratogens

Environmental agents that can harm prenatal development.

Maturation

Physical development of the brain and body that prepares an infant for voluntary movement, such as rolling over, sitting, and walking.

Secure Attachment

The attachment style for most infants, who are confident enough to play in an unfamiliar environment as long as the caregiver is present, and they are readily comforted by the caregiver during times of distress.

Avoidant Attachment

The attachment style for infants who are somewhat willing to explore an unfamiliar environment but seem to have little interest in the caregiver.

Ambivalent Attachment

The attachment style for infants who are unwilling to explore an unfamiliar environment but seem to have mixed feelings about the caregiver.

Accomodation

The process we use to create new frameworks for knowledge or drastically alter existing ones to incorporate new information that otherwise would not fit.

Assimilation

The process we use to incorporate new information into existing frameworks for knowledge.

Sensorimotor Stage

The first stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; during this stage, infants acquire information about the world through their senses and motor skills.

* Birth-2 years

Object Permanence

The object still exists even if it is not with use

* We aren’t born with this
* Birth-2 years

Preoperational Stage

The second stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; during this stage, children think symbolically about objects, but they reason based on intuition and superficial appearances rather than logic.

* 2-7 years old

Concrete Operational Stage

The third stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; during this stage, children begin to think about and understand logical operations, and they are no longer fooled by appearances.

* (7 to 12 years)

Formal Operational Stage

The final stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; during this stage, people can think abstractly, and they can formulate and test hypotheses through logic.

* 12 to adulthood

Equilibration

A basic process of development which contains both assimilation and accommodation.

Language

A system in which symbols and sounds are used according to grammatical rules.

Babbling

Intentional vocalization, often by an infant, with no specific meanings.

Telegraphic Speech

The tendency for toddlers to speak using rudimentary sentences that are missing words and grammatical markings, but follow a logical syntax and convey a wealth of meaning.

Overregularization

The tendency for young children to incorrectly use a regular syntax rule where they should use an exception to the rule.

Puberty

The physical changes in the body that are a part of sexual development.

Primary Sex Characteristics

The reproductive organs and genitals that distinguish the sexes and their maturation for reproduction.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Sex-differentiating characteristics that are not directly related to reproduction but develop during the hormonal changes of puberty.

Limbic System

The motivational and emotional center of the brain. This tends to be more active in adolescents than the frontal cortex.

Identity vs Role Confusion

The 5th stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, in which adolescent’s face the challenge of figuring out who they are.

Gender Identity

An individual’s beliefs about being male or female.

Gender Roles

The characteristics associated with being male or female because of cultural influence, or learning.

Preconventional Level

Earliest level of moral development; at this level, self-interest and event outcomes determine what is moral.

Conventional Level

Middle level of moral development; at this level, societal laws and the approval of others determine what is moral.

Post Conventional Level

Highest level of moral development; at this level, decisions about morality depend on abstract principles and the value of life.

Intimacy vs Isolation

Sixth stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development; in which young adults face the challenge of forming committed long-term friendships and romances.

Generativity vs Stagnation

Seventh stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, in which middle-aged adults face the challenge of leaving behind a positive legacy and caring for future generations.

Integrity vs Despair

Eighth stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, in which older adults face the challenge of feeling satisfied that they have lived a good life and developed wisdom.

A Senior Moment

When someone has the inability to remember something they knew a moment before, they are having….

Dementia

Severe impairment in intellectual capacity and personality, often due to damage to the brain.

Motivation

Factors of differing strength that energize, direct, and sustain behavior.

Need

A state of biological or social deficiency.

Need Hierarchy

An arrangement of needs, in which basic survival needs must be met before people can satisfy higher needs.

* the pyramid!!

Drive

A psychological state that, by creating arousal, motivates an organism to engage in a behavior to satisfy a need.

Equilibrium

A stable condition.

Homeostasis

The tendency for bodily functions to remain in equilibrium.

Arousal

Psychological activation (such as increased brain activity) or increased autonomic responses (such as increased heart rate, sweating, or muscle tension).

Incentives

External objects or goals, rather than internal drives, that motivate behaviors.

The Yerkes-Dodson Law

Performance increases with arousal up to an optimal point, and after that point, more arousal will result in decreasing performance.

Pleasure Principle

This motivates people to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

Extrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform an activity because of the external goals toward which that activity is directed.

Intrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform an activity because of the value or pleasure associated with that activity.

Self-Efficacy

The expectation that your efforts will lead to success.

Achievement Motivation

The need, or desire, to attain a certain standard of excellence.

Need to Belong Theory

The need for interpersonal attachments is a fundamental motive that has evolved for adaptive purposes.

Leptin

A hormone that is associated with decreasing eating behavior based on long-term body fat regulation.

Ghrelin

A hormone that is associated with increasing eating behaviors based on short-term signals in the bloodstream.

Sexual Response Cycle

A four-stage pattern of physiological and psychological responses during sexual activity.

Androgens

A class of hormones that are associated with sexual behavior and are more prevalent in males.

* Ex. Testosterone

Estrogens

A class of hormones that are associated with sexual behavior and are more prevalent in females.

* Ex. Estradiols

Double Standard

Premarital sex is morally and socially acceptable for men, but not for women.

Sexual Strategies Theory

Women and men have evolved distinct mating strategies because they have faced different adaptive problems over the course of human history.

Emotion

Feelings that involve subjective evaluation, physiological processes, and cognitive beliefs.

Primary Emotions

Evolutionary adaptive emotions that are shared across cultures and associated with specific physical states.

* Ex. Anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, surprise, and contempt

Secondary Emotions

Blends of primary emotions (learned emotions).

* Tied to a sense of self


* Ex. guilt, shame, submission, anticipation, and remorse

James-Lang Theory

Emotions result from the experience of physiological reactions in the body.

* Stimulus→ Bodily response→ Emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory

Emotions and bodily responses both occur simultaneously due to the ways that parts of the brain process information.

* Stimulus → Brain processes → Emotion and bodily response

Schachter-Singer two-factor Theory

How we experience an emotion is influenced by the cognitive label we apply to explain the physiological changes we have experienced.

* Stimulus → Bodily response → Emotion label → Emotion

Amygdala

Processes the emotional significance of stimuli, and it generates immediate emotional and behavioral reactions.

Second Path

Information comes into the thalamus, goes to the cortex, and then goes to the amygdala.

* a more deliberate and thorough evaluation of information

First Path

Information comes into the thalamus and then goes straight into the amygdala.

* information is processed nearly instantaneously
* “Quick and dirty”

Reappraisal

We directly alter our emotional reactions to events by thinking about those events in more neutral terms.

Rumination

Thinking about, elaborating, and focusing on undesired thoughts or feelings.

Distraction

Doing or thinking about something other than the troubling activity of thought.

* postponing the issue

Display Rules

Rules that are learned through socialization and that dictate what emotions are suitable in certain situations.

Affect-as-information Theory

People use their current moods to make decisions, judgements, and appraisals, even if they do not know the sources of their moods.

Guilt

A negative emotional state associated with anxiety, tension, and agitation.

Attributions

Our explanations for events or actions including other people’s behavior.

Personal Attributions

People’s explanations for why events or actions occur that refer to people’s internal characteristics such as abilities, traits, moods, or efforts.

Situational Attributions

People’s explanations for why events or actins occur that refer to external events, such as the weather, luck, accidents, or other people’s actions.

Fundamental Attribution Error

In explaining other people’s behavior, the tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors.

Actor/Observer Bias

When interpreting our own behavior, we tend to focus on situations, but when interpreting other people’s behavior, we tend to focus on personal attributes.

Subtyping

When we encounter someone who doesn’t fit a stereotype, we may put that person in a special category rather than change the stereotype.

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

People’s tendency to behave in ways that confirm their own expectations or other people’s expectations.

Prejudice

Negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype.

Discrimination

The inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people as a result of prejudice.

Ingroups

Groups we belong to.

Outgroups

Groups we do not belong to.

Simple Attitude

Your behavior is consistent with your attitude.

Complex Attitude

Your behavior is not consistent with your attitude.

Attitude Accessibility

The ease of retrieving an attitude from memory.

Mere Exposure Effect

The increase in liking due to repeated exposure.

Explicit Attitude

An attitude that a person is consciously aware of and can report.

Implicit Attitude

An attitude that influences a person’s feelings and behavior at an unconscious level.

Cognitive Dissonance

An uncomfortable mental state due to a contradiction between two attitudes or an attitude and a behavior.

* Causes anxiety and tension

Post decisional Dissonance

When we have positive attitudes about different options, but we must choose one option.

Persuasion

The active and conscious effort to change an attitude through the transmission of a message.

Central Route

A method of persuasion that uses high elaboration- people pay attention to the arguments and consider all the information in the message.

* usually results in the development of stronger attitudes

Peripheral Route

A method of persuasion that uses low elaboration- people minimally process the information.

* usually results in the development of weaker attitudes

Social Facilitation

When the mere presence of others enhances performance.

Social Loafing

The tendency for people to work less hard in a group than when working alone.

Deindividuation

A state of reduced individuality, self-awareness, and attention to personal standards.

* occur most when people are part of a group

Risky-Shift Effect

Groups often make riskier decisions than individuals do.

Group Polarization

If most of the group members are somewhat cautious, then the group becomes even more cautious.

Groupthink

Used to describe an extreme form of group polarization.

* Typically occurs when the group is under intense pressure, is facing external threats, or is biased in a particular direction