AQA A level Geography - Antarctica

area cover

14 million km^2

(fifth largest continent)

location

most southern continent and contains the geographic south pole

area cover

14 million km^2

(fifth largest continent)

location

most southern continent and contains the geographic south pole

what ocean surrounds antarctica

Southern Ocean

how much of its land area is covered by ice

98% which averages almost 2km in thickness.

only the northern reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula are uncovered by ice

Antarctic Convergence

important climactic boundary in terms of both air-sea fluxes and the heat and salt budgets of the oceans

- AC marks where surface waters of the southern ocean moving southward, sink below sub-antarctic waters

- has faster water currents

temperatures

- around coasts, temperatures are close to freezing in summer months

- in winter, -10 to -30 degrees celsius though winter storms can bring warm air to about 0 degrees

- in high interior plateau regions in summer temperatures around -20 degrees and winter below -60 degrees celsius

Threats to Antarctica

Climate change

Fishing and whaling

Search for mineral resources

Tourism and scientific research

tourism

- tourism in Antarctica began in 1950s

- over 55,000 tourists every year

- most tourism in summer, this can disturb wildlife breeding season

- The International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IATO) ensures that tourism is conducted in an environmentally friendly way

fishing and whaling

- main economic use of the seas was fishing in 1960s/70s,

- rock cod and krill were fished by Russian and Japanese fleets using large trawlers

- over exploitation has led to depletion - "tragedy of the commons"

reducing the fishing and whaling threat and the IWC

international whaling commission (IWC) was set up under the international convention for the regulation of whaling in 1946.

- enforces regulations on 89 member states including 'catch limits'

- they conduct scientific research on whales and conservation work (through annual meetings)

- Whaling Moratorium in 1982 bans all commercial whaling (however norway and iceland still whale as agreed with IWC)

- Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary set up, focusing on the protection of calves and females

- whaling in the southern ocean is not allowed by international conservation law

criticisms of the IWC

- member states choose freely to be in the IWC and opt out (japan left in 2019)

- countries can object to IWC regulations

- countries can exploit loopholes - before leaving, Japan claimed that they whaled for 'scientific research' although widely doubted.

reducing fishing threat and the CCAMLR

convention on the conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980)

- protect marine life populations, especially krill

- meet annually to discuss management of fisheries

- scientific committee provide advice and information

- CCAMLR responsible for research, monitoring, and conservation

- ecosystem monitoring program, detects changes to ecosystem and analyses the effects

mineral resources

- resources include: copper, lead, gold, tin, uranium, zinc, and more

- prohibited in Antarctica by the Madrid Protocol (extension of the Antarctic Treaty System, ATS)

- USA, UK and Japan argue against this

- ban can be revisited in 2948

- China and Russia want to revisit ban sooner

climate change

intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) says:

- antarctica facing loss of ice from ice sheets (especially antarctic peninsula and west antarctic ice sheet)

- antarctic peninsula is one of the most rapidly warming places in the world (3 degrees celsius increase over last 50 years)

- large crack in sea ice recently appeared on Ross Ice Shelf

The Antarctic Treaty (ATS)

- started in 1959

- used to be 12 members, now 56

- banned all forms of military activity and made it zone free of nuclear tests and disposal of radioactive waste

- promotes scientific research (all states have rights to establish research stations there)

- Madrid Protocol (1998) is an extension of ATS), bans all mining activities apart from scientific research

UNEP and NGOs

- united nations environment programme (UNEP) prepares regular report every 3 years

- NGOs e.g. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC) aim to protect Antarctic and Southern Ocean

- involvement includes: monitor threats and ensure protocols are enforced