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Flashcards for reviewing solutions, colloids, acids, bases and salts, and nuclear chemistry concepts.
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homogeneous mixture (solution)
A mixture that is uniform throughout at the molecular level.
heterogeneous mixture
A mixture in which the components are separated from each other by well-defined boundaries.
suspensions
Mixtures that may look homogeneous but do not have the transparency of air or seawater.
first characteristic of a solution
The distribution of particles in a solution is uniform.
second characteristic of a solution
The components of a solution do not separate on standing.
third characteristic of a solution
A solution cannot be separated into its components by filtration.
fourth characteristic of a solution
For any given solute and solvent, it is possible to make solutions of many different compositions.
fifth characteristic of a solution
Solutions are almost always transparent.
sixth characteristic of a solution
Solutions can be separated into pure components.
solvent
The fraction of a solution in which the other components are dissolved.
solute
A substance that is dissolved in a solvent to produce a solution.
solution
Comprises of a solute and a solvent.
solubility
The maximum amount of the solid that will dissolve in a given amount of a particular solvent at a given temperature.
miscible
When liquids are completely soluble in other liquid solvents.
saturated
When a solvent contains all the solute it can hold at a given temperature.
unsaturated
Any solution containing a lesser amount of solute.
supersaturated
A solution that contains more solute in the solvent than it can normally hold at a given temperature under equilibrium conditions.
seeding
Adding a crystal of the solute to crystallize the excess solute.
Henry's Law
Describes the solubility of a gas in a liquid, stating that the higher the pressure in a gas, the greater is the solubility of a gas in a liquid.
bends
A condition that occurs when divers come up and the pressure on their bodies decreases, causing the solubility of nitrogen in their blood to decrease, forming small bubbles.
concentration
The amount of a solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent.
nature of the solvent and solute
follows the principle of 'like dissolves like'? polar solutes will dissolve in polar solvents and vice versa.
temperature
The solubility of solids in liquids generally increases as temperature increases.
pressure
has little effect on the solubility of liquids or solids.
percent concentration
the weight of solute per volume of solution? The number of grams of solute in 100 mL of solution.
Molarity
The number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 L of solution. The units are moles per liter.
dilution
A process where solutions are prepared by diluting concentrated solutions rather than by weighing out pure solute.
parts per million (PPM) and parts per billion (PPB)?
A unit used to express concentration for very dilute solutions.
molality
The number of moles of solute dissolved in 1000 g (1 kg) of solvent.
mole fraction
it is defined as the number of moles (n) of that component, divided by the total number of moles of all components in the solution.
normality
Defined as the number of grams equivalent weight of solute per liter of solution.
aqueous solution
A solution in which water is the solvent.
non-aqueous solution
A solution in which a substance other than water is the solvent.
water of hydration
The attraction between ions and water is so strong that for many solids, water molecules are a part of the crystal structure.
anhydrous crystal
The crystal without its water of hydration.
hygroscopic
Some anhydrous crystals become hydrated upon standing in air.
electrolyte
A substance that conducts electric current and separates into ions when dissolved in water.
non-electrolyte
A substance that does not conduct electricity.
strong electrolyte
A compound that dissociates completely to ions in an aqueous solution.
weak electrolytes
Compounds that only partially dissociate to ions in an aqueous solution.
They scatter light and therefore appear turbid, cloudy, or milky and form stable dispersions, they form stable dispersions
2 basic characteristics of colloidal systems
Tyndall effect
A phenomenon in which light passing through a colloid is scattered by colloidal-sized particles.
Brownian motion
The random motion of colloid-size particles.
colligative property
A physical property of a solution that depends only on the quantity of solute particles and not on their chemical identities.
Vapor-pressure lowering
boiling-point elevation
freezing-point depression
osmotic pressure
four colligative properties of solutions
vapor pressure lowering
The __________ of a solution of a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte is always lower than the vapor pressure of the pure solvent.
boiling point
The __________ of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the substance equals atmospheric pressure.
osmosis
The passage of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane separating a dilute solution (or pure solvent) from a more concentrated solution.
osmotic pressure
The amount of external pressure that must be applied to the more concentrated solution to stop the passage of solvent molecules across a semipermeable membrane.
Osmolarity
The molarity multiplied by the number of particles produced by each formula unit of solute.
isotonic solutions
Solutions with the same osmolarity.
hypotonic solution
A solution with lower osmolarity than blood plasma and red blood cells.
hemolysis
The swelling and bursting of red blood cells because they cannot resist the increase in osmotic pressure when put into a hypotonic solution.
hypertonic solution
A solution with higher osmolarity than red blood cells.
Arrhenius acid
An acid is a substance that yields hydrogen ions in aqueous solution.
Arrhenius base
A base is a substance that yields hydroxide ions in aqueous solution.
Bronsted-Lowry acid
An acid is a substance that donates protons (H+) to other substances.
Bronsted-Lowry base
A base is a substance that accepts protons from other substances.
Amphiprotic or Amphoteric Substance
A substance that can either donate or accept a proton and thus can function as either a Brønsted-Lowry acid or a Brønsted-Lowry base.
Lewis theory acid
An acid is any specie that is capable of accepting a pair of electrons to form a coordinate covalent bond.
Lewis theory base
A base is any specie that is capable of donating a pair of electrons to form a coordinate covalent bond.
strong acid
Transfers ~100% of its protons to water in an aqueous solution and yields a weak conjugate base.
weak acid
Transfers only a small % of its protons to water in an aqueous solution and the weaker the acid, the stronger its conjugate base.
nuclear chemistry
The subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity and nuclear processes.
nuclear reaction
A reaction in which changes occur in the nucleus of an atom.
nuclide
An atom with a specific atomic number and a specific mass number.
radioactive nuclide (radionuclide)
A nuclide with an unstable nucleus from which radiation is spontaneously emitted.
radioactivity
Spontaneous emission of particles from the decay of certain nuclides or due to an adjustment of their internal structure.
radioactive decay
Process in which a radionuclide is transformed into a nuclide of another element as a result of the emission of radiation from its nucleus.
parent nuclide
Nuclide that undergoes decay.
daughter nuclide
Nuclide that is produced from the decay.
nuclear fission
The fragmentation of larger nuclei into smaller ones.
nuclear fusion
Two light nuclei merge to form a single heavier nucleus.
Henri Becquerel
Discovered natural radioactivity in 1896 and that uranium salts gave off similar rays naturally on that of Roentgen.
Marie Curie
Coined ‘radioactivity’ and discovered radioactive elements: thorium, polonium, and radium.
Earnest Rutherford
Discovered alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
Alpha radiation
Low penetrating power (stopped by paper) and least penetrating but most ionizing.
Beta radiation
Slight penetrating power (stopped by clothing).
Gamma radiation
High-energy electromagnetic radiation and most penetrating radiation (pass through the body).
half-life of radioactive decay
The time it takes for half the nuclei present in a sample to decay.
What is nuclear medicine?
Use of radioactive isotopes as tools for both diagnosis and treatment of diseases.
What is Transmutation?
Involves converting a chemical element into another less harmful one.
Raoult’s Law
It states that the vapor pressure lowering is proportional to the mole fraction of the solute.
Semi- permeable membrane
a membrane that allows certain types of molecules to pass through it but prohibits the passage of other types of molecules.
Conjugate Acid
It is the particle formed that has received the proton
Conjugate base
is it the particle left from the acid once it has donated the proton.
radiation
the penetrating rays and particles emitted by a radioactive source.
radioactivity
the emission of particles caused by the spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
(1895) He accidentally discovered an invisible radiation which is more penetrating than uv rays that it emits. He named it X-ray.
Nuclear Equation
is an equation in which the chemical symbols present represents atomic nuclei rather than atoms
Alpha particles
Beta particles
Gamma rays
Types of radiation
Positron decay
it is like a mirror image of beta decay. Something inside the nucleus of an atom breaks down, which causes a proton to became a neutron.
Neutron capture
it is a nuclear reaction in which an atomic nucleus and one more neutrons collide and merge to form heavier nucleus.
Electron capture
it is an electron from the closest energy levels falls into the nucleus which causes a proton to become a neutron.
Neutrino
it is emitted from the nucleus.
Intensity - energy flux
measures the number of particles of photons emerging per unit
Scintillation counters
contains a material called a phosphor that emits a unit of light for each alpha or beta particles or gamma rays that strikes it
Energy
The energies of different particles vary. the penetrating power of radiation depends on its energy and the mass of the particle.
Roentgens (R)
measures the energy delivered by a radiation source of the amount of exposure of radiation.
rads
measures of the radiation absorbed from a radiation course.