Western Civilization II Exam II

Alexander Hamilton

(1755/57–1804) – A Founding Father of the U.S., he was the first Secretary of the Treasury and played a key role in shaping the nation’s financial system, including the creation of a national bank. He co-wrote The Federalist Papers to advocate for the ratification of the Constitution and championed a strong central government. He was killed in a duel by Vice President Aaron Burr after a long-standing political rivalry.

Friedrich Engels

(1820–1895) – A German philosopher, industrialist, and social scientist, he co-wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848) with Karl Marx, laying the foundation for modern communism. Engels financially supported Marx and contributed to Das Kapital, which criticized capitalism and argued for the necessity of proletarian revolution. His work deeply influenced socialist movements and the eventual rise of communist states in the 20th century.

Otto von Bismarck

(1815–1898) – The Prussian statesman who masterminded the unification of Germany in 1871 through a series of wars against Denmark, Austria, and France. As Germany’s first Chancellor (1871–1890), he maintained power through realpolitik, balancing diplomacy and military force while introducing social reforms to weaken socialist opposition. Dismissed by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890, he left behind a militarized and industrialized Germany.

Nicholas II

(1868–1918) – The last Emperor of Russia (1894–1917), his reign was marked by political turmoil, the disastrous Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), and Russia’s failures in World War I. His resistance to reform led to widespread unrest, culminating in the Russian Revolution of 1917 and his forced abdication. He and his family were executed by the Bolsheviks in 1918, ending the Romanov dynasty after over 300 years of rule.

Francis Lowell

(1775–1817) – An American industrialist who revolutionized textile manufacturing by introducing the power loom to the U.S. and establishing the Lowell mills. His system of centralized production and employment of young women set the stage for the American Industrial Revolution. The city of Lowell, Massachusetts, became a major hub of early industrialization due to his influence.

Alexander Cassatt

(1839–1906) – President of the Pennsylvania Railroad (1899–1906), he was instrumental in expanding the rail network and improving efficiency. He spearheaded the construction of Pennsylvania Station in New York City and promoted the use of electric rail technology. His leadership helped modernize American rail travel, though he died before seeing Penn Station’s completion.

Wilhelm I

(1797–1888) – The first German Emperor (1871–1888), he presided over the unification of Germany under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck. Although conservative, he approved Bismarck’s social and economic reforms, including health and pension systems. His reign saw Germany rise as a dominant European power, but his successor, Wilhelm II, would take a more aggressive approach.

Sigmund Freud

(1856–1939) – The father of psychoanalysis, he developed theories on the unconscious mind, dream interpretation, and psychological defense mechanisms. His ideas, such as the id, ego, and superego, remain influential in psychology, though many have been criticized or revised. Freud's work also explored the impact of childhood experiences on adult behavior, shaping modern psychotherapy.

Karl Marx

(1818–1883) – A German philosopher, economist, and political theorist who co-wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848) and wrote Das Kapital (1867). He argued that capitalism exploits workers and that class struggle would inevitably lead to a proletarian revolution and a communist society. His ideas inspired socialist movements worldwide, leading to the formation of communist states in the 20th century.

William Rau

(1855–1920) – A prominent 19th-century photographer known for documenting industrial and urban development, particularly in Pennsylvania. His work captured the rapid expansion of railroads, factories, and cityscapes, providing a visual record of the era’s technological progress. His photography remains a valuable historical resource for studying industrial America.

Wilhelm II

(1859–1941) – The last German Emperor (1888–1918), he aggressively expanded Germany’s military and sought global influence, contributing to the tensions that led to World War I. His erratic leadership and diplomatic missteps alienated allies and escalated conflicts. After Germany’s defeat in 1918, he abdicated and lived in exile in the Netherlands until his death.

Jacques Daguerre

(1787–1851) – A French artist and inventor who developed the daguerreotype process in 1839, one of the first practical forms of photography. His invention allowed for the capture of highly detailed images, revolutionizing visual documentation. The daguerreotype quickly spread worldwide, paving the way for modern photographic techniques.

J. Edgar Thompson

(1808–1874) – The influential president of the Pennsylvania Railroad (1852–1874), he expanded it into the largest rail network in the world at the time. His management strategies and infrastructure investments set standards for modern rail transportation. His leadership contributed to the economic growth of the U.S. during the 19th century.

Henry Ford

(1863–1947) – Founder of Ford Motor Company, he revolutionized manufacturing by introducing the assembly line in 1913, drastically reducing car production costs. His Model T made automobiles affordable to the average American, transforming transportation and industry. Ford also implemented a $5 daily wage to create a stable workforce and increase consumer spending.

Hermann Göring

(1893–1946) – A high-ranking Nazi official, he led the Luftwaffe (German air force) and played a major role in Hitler’s government. He was responsible for early Nazi military successes but failed to defend Germany from Allied air raids. Convicted of war crimes at the Nuremberg Trials, he committed suicide before his execution.

Abdul Hamid II

(1842–1918) – The last powerful Ottoman Sultan (1876–1909), he ruled with an iron grip and resisted modernization. He suppressed dissent and relied on secret police, earning the nickname "Red Sultan" for brutal crackdowns. Overthrown by the Young Turks in 1909, he spent his final years under house arrest.

John D. Rockefeller

(1839–1937) – Founder of Standard Oil (1870), he built an oil empire through ruthless business tactics, monopolization, and innovations in refining. His wealth made him one of the richest men in history, and he later became a major philanthropist, funding medical research and education. Standard Oil was broken up in 1911 due to antitrust laws, but its legacy shaped the modern petroleum industry.

George Westinghouse

(1846–1914) – An engineer and industrialist who promoted alternating current (AC) electricity, challenging Thomas Edison’s direct current (DC) system. His innovations in electrical power, railroads, and air brakes improved industrial efficiency. His company, Westinghouse Electric, played a key role in the development of the modern power grid.

Adolf Hitler

(1889–1945) – Leader of Nazi Germany (1933–1945), he initiated World War II and orchestrated the Holocaust, leading to the deaths of millions. His aggressive expansionist policies and racist ideology devastated Europe. He committed suicide in April 1945 as Allied forces closed in on Berlin.

George VI

(1895–1952) – King of the United Kingdom (1936–1952), he unexpectedly ascended the throne after his brother, Edward VIII, abdicated. He led Britain through World War II, giving morale-boosting speeches and working closely with Winston Churchill. Despite his speech impediment, he became a respected and unifying figure for the British people.

Luddites

(1811–1817 movement) – A group of English textile workers who violently opposed industrialization, fearing that machines would replace skilled laborers. They destroyed factory equipment, particularly in Northern England, leading to government crackdowns and executions. Today, "Luddite" refers more broadly to those resistant to technological change.

Bourgeoisie

(18th–20th century term) – A term from Marxist theory referring to the middle and upper classes who own the means of production, such as factory owners and capitalists. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels argued that the bourgeoisie exploited the proletariat (working class) for profit. In broader usage, it refers to wealthier, materialistic, or conventionally respectable people.

Chicago World’s Fair

(1893) – Also known as the World’s Columbian Exposition, it celebrated the 400th anniversary of Columbus’s voyage and showcased America’s industrial and cultural achievements. The fair introduced electric lighting, the Ferris wheel, and other innovations, symbolizing the country’s growing technological dominance. It attracted millions of visitors and shaped urban planning and architecture.

Young Turks

(1908–1918 movement) – A revolutionary group of Ottoman officers and intellectuals who overthrew Sultan Abdul Hamid II in 1909, aiming to modernize and democratize the empire. They established a constitutional government but later became nationalistic and aligned with Germany in World War I. Their policies contributed to the decline of the Ottoman Empire and were implicated in the Armenian Genocide.

Marxism

(1840s–present ideology) – A political and economic theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that critiques capitalism and predicts the eventual overthrow of the bourgeoisie by the proletariat. It calls for a classless, stateless society in which the means of production are collectively owned. Marxism influenced socialist revolutions, including those in Russia, China, and Cuba.

Proletariat

(19th–20th century term) – A Marxist term referring to the working class, particularly those who sell their labor for wages without owning productive assets. Marx predicted that the proletariat would rise against the bourgeoisie and establish a socialist or communist society. The term is still used in socialist and labor movements to describe exploited workers.

Fordism

(1910s–20th century production system) – A system of mass production and economic organization pioneered by Henry Ford, characterized by assembly lines, high wages, and consumerism. By reducing production costs, Fordism made goods like automobiles affordable to the middle class. It influenced global industrialization but was later challenged by more flexible production models.

Art Nouveau

(1890s–1910s art movement) – A decorative art and architecture style characterized by organic forms, flowing lines, and nature-inspired motifs. Popular in Europe and the U.S., it influenced architecture, furniture, jewelry, and graphic design. Art Nouveau declined after World War I but paved the way for modernist styles.

Socialism

(19th–20th century ideology) – A broad political and economic ideology advocating for collective or government control of major industries and wealth redistribution to reduce inequality. It ranges from democratic socialism (where reforms occur within a democratic system) to more radical forms like communism. Socialism influenced labor movements, welfare policies, and revolutions worldwide.

AFL-CIO

(Founded 1955, active today) – The American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations, a major U.S. labor union federation. It was formed by merging two rival groups to strengthen worker rights, collective bargaining, and labor laws. The AFL-CIO remains influential in U.S. politics and labor disputes.

Manhattan Transfer

(Published 1925, historical reference to NYC’s transit hub) – A novel by John Dos Passos that depicts the fast-paced, chaotic life of New York City in the early 20th century. It employs modernist narrative techniques, such as fragmented storytelling and multiple perspectives. The title also refers to the train station where passengers transferred from long-distance rail to local transit.

Panzers

(1930s–1945, WWII era) – German armored tanks used in World War II, crucial to Hitler’s Blitzkrieg (lightning war) strategy. Panzers enabled rapid conquests of Poland, France, and the Soviet Union, though they struggled in prolonged battles. Advanced models like the Tiger tank were powerful but costly and complex to maintain.

Social Democrats

(19th century–present political movement) – A political movement advocating for democratic socialism, aiming to balance capitalism with social welfare programs. Unlike communists, social democrats support gradual reforms rather than revolution. Many European countries, such as Sweden and Germany, adopted social democratic policies in the 20th century.

Standard Time

(Adopted 1883 in the U.S., globally in 1884) – A system of dividing the world into time zones to standardize clocks, initially adopted by railroads in the U.S. Before standard time, each town set its own clock, causing confusion in transportation and communication. The system was officially adopted worldwide in 1884 at the International Meridian Conference.

Manhattan Project

(1942–1945, WWII nuclear project) – A top-secret U.S. government research program that developed the first nuclear weapons. Led by scientists like J. Robert Oppenheimer and based in Los Alamos, New Mexico, the project produced the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It marked the beginning of the nuclear age and the Cold War arms race.

U-boats

(1914–1945, WWI & WWII German submarines) – German submarines that played a key role in both World Wars, disrupting Allied shipping with torpedo attacks. In WWI, unrestricted U-boat warfare contributed to the U.S. entering the war. In WWII, U-boats waged the Battle of the Atlantic but were eventually countered by sonar and improved anti-submarine tactics.

Trade Unionism

(19th–20th century labor movement) – A movement advocating for workers’ rights, collective bargaining, and better wages through organized labor unions. Trade unions gained power during industrialization, leading to labor laws like the 40-hour workweek and workplace safety regulations. Today, unions remain influential in labor disputes and politics.

Standard Oil Corp.

(Founded 1870, broken up 1911) – John D. Rockefeller’s oil monopoly, which controlled nearly all U.S. oil refining and distribution. It was dismantled by antitrust laws in 1911, splitting into smaller companies, some of which became ExxonMobil and Chevron. Standard Oil’s dominance shaped modern corporate regulation and business practices.

Horseshoe Curve

(Completed 1854, key rail landmark) – A famous railway curve in Pennsylvania that allowed trains to cross the Allegheny Mountains efficiently. It was a critical route for moving coal, steel, and troops during the Civil War and both World Wars. The curve remains an engineering marvel and a major rail attraction today.

Luftwaffe

(Founded 1935, active in WWII) – Nazi Germany’s air force, led by Hermann Göring, and a key force in early German victories in WWII. The Luftwaffe dominated the skies during the Blitzkrieg but struggled against Allied air superiority later in the war. It was officially disbanded after Germany’s defeat in 1945.