AP Psych Vocab

Learning

The process of acquiring new and lasting information or behaviors through experience

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning where we link stimuli, so one stimulus (like a tone) triggers behavior (like drooling) in anticipation of another stimulus (food).

Acquisition

Involves repeated pairings of the CS and the UCS. The greater the number of pairings (trials), the stronger the conditioned response

Simultaneous Conditioning

Both the US and UCS is presented at the same time

Backward Conditioning

Occurs when the UCS is presented before the CS; timing is ineffective

Temporal Conditioning

Occurs when the CS is a fixed period of time
between presentations of the UCS

Extinction

A procedure that leads to the
gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of
the CR

Spontaneous Recovery

Occurs when a previously extinguished CR
suddenly reappears after a period of no training

Generalization

Occurs when a CR is triggered by stimuli similar to the CS, even without prior association with the UCS.

Discrimination

Occurs when stimuli similar to the CS don't trigger a CR, after training with the CS and UCS. Greater similarity makes discrimination harder.

Ivan Pavlov

Pavlov paired the metronome (CS) with meat powder (UCS) until the metronome alone produced salivation (CR), demonstrating key classical conditioning concepts: acquisition, extinction, generalization, and discrimination.

John B. Watson

John Watson conditioned Albert to fear a white rat (CS) by pairing it with a loud noise (UCS). The rat alone caused fear (CR), and this fear generalized to similar stimuli. This demonstrated that emotional responses, such as fear, can be learned through classical conditioning.

Instrumental Learning

Producing an environmental change that influences behavior, based on the consequences following the action.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

behaviors are encouraged when they
are followed by satisfying consequences and discouraged when they are followed by annoying consequences

Operant Conditioning

Can be used to influence the likelihood of an
organism’s response by controlling the consequences
of the response

Positive reinforcement

occurs when a behavior is followed by an desired stimulus

Negative reinforcement

occurs when a behavior prevents or removes an undesired stimulus

Primary reinforcers

are stimuli that are biologically relevant to organisms and can of increasing the chance of organisms’ behaviors toward them

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Associative Learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

Stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

Cognitave Learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

an unlearned, natural response (e.g., salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food).

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that naturally triggers an unconditioned response (UCR).

Conditioned Response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and triggers a conditioned response (CR)

High- order conditioning

A procedure where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, forming a second, weaker conditioned stimulus. For instance, an animal learns that a light predicts a tone, which then predicts food. (Second-order conditioning.)

Operant Chamber

In operant conditioning, a Skinner box is a chamber with a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to receive a food or water reward, with devices recording the animal’s actions.

Reinforcement

a process in which a behavior is strengthened by consequences, increasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Discriminative Stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

Reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Continuous reinforcement

a schedule in which a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

a schedule in which a behavior is reinforced only some of the time, not every time it occurs.

Fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

Biofeedback

a technique that teaches individuals to control physiological functions, such as heart rate or muscle tension, by using real-time data from sensors.

Respondent behavior

involuntary behavior that occurs in response to a stimulus, typically seen in classical conditioning.

Operant Behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence.

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

Intrinsic motivation

the desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Extrinsic motivation

the desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

Problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly — by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

Emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction.

Learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation humans and other animals learn when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

External locus of control

the perception that outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

Internal locus of control

the perception that we control our own fate.

Self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification

Observational learning

learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.)

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Mirror neurons

Neurons that fire when we perform actions or observe others may enable imitation and empathy.

Prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

B.F. Skinner

He did the operant conditioning with animals. Known as the skinner box. When the animal presses a lever, it will release food. Now we know reinforcement could shape behavior and contribute to the development of learning theories.

Edward Thorndike

He put a cat in a puzzle box. The cat had to pull the lever to open the door to escape. The cat didn’t know that. There were other levers and buttons, it was a matter of trial and error. We learned Law of Effect and gradual learning.

Edward Tolman

his latent learning experiment conducted with rats in mazes. This experiment was designed to challenge the behaviorist notion that learning only occurs when there is an immediate reward.

Albert Bandura

After observing the adult’s behavior, the children were then allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll and other toys. The children imitated what they saw. Either playing harshly or carefully based on what the adult did.

Case study

in-depth analysis of a specific situation or event to explore its causes, outcomes, and lessons

Experiment

a research method where variables are manipulated to observe their effects, aiming to establish cause-and-effect relationships

Correlational study

examines the relationship between variables without manipulating them, showing if they are linked but not proving causation

independent variable

is the factor that is manipulated or changed to observe its effect on another variable

Dependent

the factor that is measured to see how it is affected by changes in the independent variable

Control variable

a factor that is kept constant to ensure it does not affect the outcome of the experiment

Kinesthetics

brain’s ability to understand their body's position and motion

Authoritative

Warm, responsive, and set clear boundaries. Balances rules with support and encourages independence.

Authoritarian

strict, high expectations, and often controlling with little warmth or flexibility

Permissive

avoids setting strict boundaries. Parents are warm but lack control

Neglectful

Uninvolved, indifferent, and provides little emotional support or guidance

Sampling

process of selecting a group of participants from a larger population to represent that population in a study

natural observation

method of observing subjects in their natural environment without interference or manipulation

meta-analysis

a statistical technique that combines results from multiple studies to identify overall trends or effects

Variable interval

a reinforcement schedule where rewards are given after unpredictable time intervals, promoting steady response rates

Self serving bias

tendency to attribute positive outcomes to one's own abilities and negative outcomes to external factors

confirmation bias

the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or opinions

Confidentiality

the practice of keeping personal or sensitive information private and secure, ensuring it is not disclosed without permission

deception

refers to intentionally misleading or withholding information from participants in a study to ensure valid results

Chunking

the technique of organizing information into smaller, meaningful units to enhance memory and improve recall

Spacing

refers to the practice of spreading out learning or study sessions over time, which improves long-term retention

reciprocal determinism

theory that behavior is influenced by the interaction of personal factors, environmental influences

cognitive dissonance

psychological discomfort felt when holding two conflicting beliefs or when behavior contradicts beliefs (a person's actions don't align with their values)

Schemas

mental structures that help organize and interpret information based on past experiences

priming

when something you see or hear affects how you think or respond to something else later, often without you realizing it

Convenience sampling

a method of selecting participants that are easy to reach or available, rather than using a random or representative group

random sampling

a method where participants are chosen randomly, giving everyone an equal chance of being selected

Conservation

understanding that quantity, weight, or volume remains the same even when its appearance changes

object permanence

the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not seen or heard

scaffolding

teaching method where support is gradually reduced as a learner becomes more capable of doing a task on their own