Biopsychology (Finals) - Lessons 4-6 Flashcards

Flashcards for reviewing lecture notes on Mendelian Genetics, Brain Damage, Vision, and Sensory Processes.

Genes

Units of heredity that maintain their structural identity from one generation to another.

Chromosomes

Strands of genes, usually in pairs.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Double-stranded molecules, the building blocks of chromosomes.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Single-stranded chemical synthesized from DNA; materializes the plans of DNA and synthesizes protein.

Homozygous

Same gene on two chromosomes.

Heterozygous

An unmatched pair of genes.

Dominant Gene

Exerts a strong effect in either the homozygous or heterozygous condition.

Recessive Gene

Exerts its effects only in the homozygous condition.

Mutation

Heritable change in a DNA molecule.

Histone

Protein where our DNA binds.

Acetylation

Unwinding of DNA.

Methylation

Inhibits gene expression; tightens DNA.

Evolution

Change over generations in the frequencies of various genes in a population.

Evolutionary Psychology

Concerns how behaviors evolved; emphasizes evolutionary and functional explanations.

Kin Selection

Selection for a gene that benefits the individual’s relatives.

Reciprocal Altruism

Individuals help those who will probably return the favor.

Sex-Linked Genes

Genes on the sex chromosomes.

Closed Head Injury

Sharp blow to the head that does not puncture the brain.

Ischemia

Blood clot or obstruction in an artery, leading to deprivation of oxygen and glucose in neurons.

Hemorrhage

Ruptured artery, leading to flooding of blood, excess oxygen, and other chemicals.

Penumbra

Area where cells become less active after a stroke.

Edema

Excess accumulation of fluid, leading to damages in surrounding tissue.

Tissue Plasminogen Activator (tPA)

Treatment for strokes that breaks blood clots; should be given 4.5 hours after a stroke.

Diaschisis

Decreased activity of surviving neurons because of damage to other neurons.

Chondroitin

Chemical produced by the astrocytes that inhibit regeneration, but they also reduce inflammation spread.

Neurotrophins

Induce other axons to form new branches that take over the vacant synapses.

Phantom Limb

Continuing sensation of an amputated body part.

Stroke

Temporary interruption of normal blood flow to a brain area.

Cannabinoids

Chemicals found in marijuana.

Denervation Supersensitivity

If a certain set of synapses becomes inactive, the remaining synapses become more responsive.

Pupil

Opening in the center of the iris where light enters.

Retina

Rear surface of the eye lined with visual receptors.

Ganglion Cells

Conveys the messages from the bipolar cells; last part before optic nerve.

Amacrine Cells

Additional cells that refine the input to ganglion cells.

Blind Spot

Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye.

Fovea

Tiny area specialized for acute, detailed vision.

Foveal vision

Has better acuity

Peripheral vision

Has better sensitivity to dim light.

Law of Specific Energies

Whatever excites a particular nerve establishes a special kind of energy unique to that nerve.

Lens

Adjustable part of the eye that focuses light.

Cornea

Non-adjustable part of the eye that focuses light.

Bipolar Cells

One of the main retinal interneurons; middle messengers.

Optic Nerve

Ganglion cells' axons that join to travel back to the brain.

Rods

More located at the periphery; respond to faint light but are not useful in daylight.

Cones

More located at the center; less active in dim light, more useful in bright light.

Photopigments

Chemicals that release energy when struck by light.

Color Vision Deficiency

Inability or decreased ability to see color or perceive differences.

Amplitude

Intensity of sound; loudness.

Frequency

Number of compressions per second of a wave; measured in hertz (Hz).

Pitch

The related aspect of perception related to frequency.

Timbre

Tone quality or tone complexity.

Prosody

Conveying emotional information by tone of voice.

Pinna

The familiar structure of flesh and cartilage attached to each side of the head.

Cochlea

The snail-shaped structure of the inner ear.

Hair cells

Auditory receptors, lie along the basilar membrane of the cochlea.

Primary Auditory Cortex

Major sounds ang narereceive.

Secondary Auditory Cortex

Surrounds the primary auditory cortex and other areas that respond mainly to meaningful sounds.

Amusia

Tone-deafness.

Conductive Deafness

Result of diseases, infections, or tumorous growth that prevent the bones of the middle ear from transmitting sound waves properly to cochlea.

Nerve Deafness

Result from damage to cochlea, the hair cells or the auditory nerve.

Tinnitus

Frequent and constant hearing in the ears.

Vestibular Sensation

Detects position and movement of the head (also balance).

Tympanic Membrane

Eardrums

Oval Window

Membrane of the inner ear.

Absolute Pitch

Perfect pitch, ability to hear a note and identify it.

Pacinian Corpuscle

Detects vibration or sudden displacement on the skin.

Free-Nerve Ending

Responds to pain and temperature.

Hair Follicle Receptors

Responds to movement of hair; skin strokes.

Meissner’s Corpuscles

Responds to discriminative touch and vibration.

Merkel’s Disks

Light touch.

Ruffini’s Endings

Responds to skin stretch, roughness.

Endorphins

Transmitters that attach to the same receptors as morphine.

Neuropathic Pain

Condition of chronic pain that lasts long after the original cause of pain has ended.

Placebo

Positive response to a drug.

Otoliths

Calcium carbonate particles that lie next to haircells.

Saccule

detects vertical head movement

Utricle

detects horizontal head movement

Somatosensory System

Sensation of the body and its movements.

Capsaicin

Chemical stimuli our chemical receptors respond to.

Thalamus

Transports skin sensation information to the anterior cingulate cortex..

Nocebo

Negative response to a drug.

Taste Buds

Mammalian taste receptors.

Papillae

This is where taste buds are located.

Adaptation

Reflects the fatigue of receptors sensitive to sour tastes.

Cross-Adaptation

Reduced response to one taste after exposure to another.

Glutamate

taste somewhat like unsalted chicken broth (umami)

Labeled Line

Suggests that certain taste cells and the nerves they connect to are dedicated to a single taste.

Supertasters

Those with greatest number of taste buds.

Olfaction

The response to chemicals that contact the membranes inside the nose.

Olfactory Cells

neurons responsible for smell

Orthonasal Olfaction

Inhaling external odors.

Retro-nasal Olfaction

Perception of odor when exhaled from the mouth.

Synesthesia

in which stimulation of one sense evokes a perception of that sense and another one also.