Learning and Memory – Lecture 5 (PSY100H1)

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from Lecture 5 on Learning and Memory, including classical and operant conditioning, memory systems, and memory phenomena.

Learning

A lasting change in behavior resulting from experience.

Stimulus (plural: stimuli)

Any object or event in the environment that can trigger a response.

Response

A thought or behavior elicited by a stimulus.

S–S Association

A learned link between two stimuli that allows prediction of events.

Classical Conditioning

Learning in which two stimuli are repeatedly paired so that one comes to signal the other.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially produces no specific response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A formerly neutral stimulus that elicits a response after conditioning.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally elicits a response without prior learning.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The natural, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response elicited by the conditioned stimulus.

Higher-Order Conditioning

Conditioning in which a CS is paired with a new stimulus, turning the new stimulus into a weaker CS.

Stimulus Generalization

Tendency to produce a CR to stimuli similar to the original CS.

Stimulus Discrimination

Learning to respond only to a specific CS and not to similar stimuli.

Conditioned Taste Aversion (CTA)

A strong, quickly acquired dislike for a taste that precedes illness.

Preparedness

Innate predisposition to form certain CS–UCS associations easily.

Latent Inhibition

Prior exposure to a neutral stimulus makes later conditioning with that stimulus harder.

Blocking (Classical)

Prior learning of one CS–UCS pair prevents conditioning to a new CS presented simultaneously.

Extinction (Classical)

Reduction of a CR when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.

Reinstatement

Return of an extinguished CR after a single CS–UCS pairing.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of an extinguished CR after time has passed without further training.

Renewal

Recovery of a CR when the context during testing differs from the extinction context.

Exposure Therapy

Clinical technique that reduces fear by repeatedly presenting the CS without the UCS in a safe setting.

Operant Conditioning

Learning in which the frequency of a behavior is controlled by its consequences.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that increases or maintains the frequency of a behavior.

Punishment

Any consequence that decreases the frequency of a behavior.

Positive (in Conditioning)

Refers to adding a stimulus following a behavior.

Negative (in Conditioning)

Refers to removing a stimulus following a behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase or maintain behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase or maintain behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

Token Economy

Behavior modification system where desired behaviors earn tokens exchangeable for rewards.

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

Individualized program using reinforcement principles to teach or change behaviors, often in autism.

Continuous Reinforcement

Schedule in which every correct response is reinforced.

Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses.

Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses, around an average.

Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule

First response after a set period is reinforced.

Variable Interval (VI) Schedule

First response after varying time intervals is reinforced.

Post-Reinforcement Pause

Brief break in responding following reinforcement on fixed schedules.

Observational Learning

Acquiring behavior by watching others, without direct experience.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study

Classic research showing children imitate aggressive acts seen in adults.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not expressed until incentives appear.

Dual Coding Theory

Idea that combining verbal notes with mental imagery improves learning.

Testing Effect

Improved long-term retention resulting from self-testing during study.

Spacing Effect

Superior learning when study sessions are distributed over time rather than massed.

Sensory Memory

Brief store for sensory information lasting fractions of a second to a few seconds.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory lasting about one second or less.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory lasting several seconds.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Temporary storage system holding small amounts of information for roughly 15–30 s.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Simple repetition that keeps information active in STM.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Processing that links new information to existing knowledge, aiding transfer to LTM.

Chunking

Grouping items into meaningful units to expand STM capacity.

Magical Number 7

Average STM capacity of about seven items or chunks (Miller, 1956).

Working Memory (WM)

System for temporary storage and manipulation of information during complex tasks.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

WM component that handles visual and spatial information.

Phonological Loop

WM component that maintains verbal and auditory information.

Central Executive

WM component that directs attention and coordinates other subsystems.

OSPAN Test

Task measuring WM capacity by combining math problems with word recall.

Serial Position Effect

Improved recall for first (primacy) and last (recency) items in a list.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Relatively permanent store of information with vast capacity.

Declarative (Explicit) Memory

LTM for facts and events that can be consciously recalled.

Episodic Memory

Declarative memory for personally experienced events.

Semantic Memory

Declarative memory for general knowledge and facts.

Nondeclarative (Implicit) Memory

LTM expressed through performance without conscious recall.

Procedural Memory

Implicit memory for motor and cognitive skills (e.g., bike riding).

Priming

Facilitated processing of a stimulus due to prior exposure.

Conditioning (as Memory)

Implicit memory shown by learned responses to stimuli.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Temporary inability to fully retrieve a known word or fact.

Schema

Cognitive framework that organizes prior knowledge and guides memory reconstruction.

Script (in Memory)

Schema describing the typical sequence of events in a familiar situation.

Source Monitoring

Process of identifying the origins of memories, knowledge or beliefs.

Memory Reconstruction

Active assembly of past events influenced by current knowledge and goals.

Flashbulb Memory

Highly vivid memory of a surprising, emotionally arousing event.

Misinformation Effect

Memory distortion caused by exposure to misleading post-event information.

False Memory

Recollection of an event that did not actually occur.

Repressed Memory

Hypothetical concept of traumatic memories stored outside awareness; highly controversial.

Context-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when encoding and retrieval occur in the same environment.

State-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when internal physiological state matches at encoding and retrieval.

Mood-Dependent Memory

Tendency to recall information congruent with one’s current mood.

Preparedness (Fear)

Evolutionary predisposition to rapidly learn fears of certain stimuli (e.g., snakes).

Exposure Therapy

Treatment using controlled exposure to feared stimuli to extinguish anxiety responses.

Token

Secondary reinforcer exchanged for primary rewards in behavior programs.

Post-Event Information

Details provided after an event that can alter eyewitness memory.

Eyewitness Confidence

Subjective certainty about a memory, often unrelated to accuracy.

Working Memory Capacity

Amount of information an individual can actively maintain and manipulate.